Ch8 - SantrockEssentials - Study Guide

(c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter 8 Socioemotional Development in Middle and Late Childhood PowerPoints developed by Jenni Fauchier, Metropolitan Community College ? Omaha Revised by B. Roberts (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Development of Self-Understanding   Children?s description of self shifts From external focus to internal (psychological characteristics and traits) From global to specific More likely to recognize social aspects of the self Self-concept -- domain-specific evaluations of the self Children self-evaluate in many domains of their lives -- academic, athletic, appearance Social comparison -- more likely to distinguish themselves from others in comparative rather than in absolute terms (Harter, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. As children get older, their views of self become more differentiated. Get the gist! (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Self-Esteem    Self-esteem -- global evaluations of the self Self-esteem reflects perceptions that do not always match reality Two aspects: self-worth self-efficacy (Dusek & McIntyre, 2003; Harter, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy -- belief that one can master a situation and produce favorable outcomes Self-efficacy influences a student?s choice of activities students with low self-efficacy for learning may avoid many learning tasks, especially those that are challenging high-self-efficacy counterparts eagerly work at learning tasks (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2003, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Erikson?s 4th Stage: Industry versus Inferiority Industry?success in this stage is evidenced by feelings of mastery, proficiency, and confidence. Inferiority?difficulties lead to feelings of failure and inadequacy, and to withdrawal from academics and socialization with peers Attaining a sense of industry during middle childhood has lasting consequences! High levels of childhood industry associated with adult success (more so than intelligence and family background!) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. A Cycle of Low Self-Esteem KNOW this cycle! If a child has low self-esteem and expects to do poorly on a test, she may experience anxiety and not do as well, which confirms the negative self view. Parents can break this cycle with a warm and supportive style. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Developmental Changes in Emotion Increased understanding that more than one emotion can be experienced in a particular situation Increased awareness of the events leading to emotional reactions Ability to suppress or conceal negative emotional reactions The use of self-initiated strategies for redirecting feelings A capacity for genuine empathy (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Self Regulation Self-regulation -- deliberate efforts to manage one?s behavior, emotions, and thoughts that lead to increased social competence and achievement Capacity in self-regulation is linked to developmental advances in the brain?s prefrontal cortex (Laible & Thompson, 2007; Saarni & others, 2006) (Durston & others, 2007) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Kohlberg Stages Based on Piaget, Kohlberg proposed six stages of moral development which he believed are universal Preconventional reasoning -- children interpret good and bad in terms of external rewards and punishments Conventional reasoning -- individuals apply certain standards, but they are the standards set by others, such as parents or the government Postconventional reasoning -- individuals recognize alternative moral courses, explore the options, and then decide on a personal moral code (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender and the Care Perspective The most publicized criticism of Kohlberg?s theory has come from Carol Gilligan She argues that Kohlberg?s theory reflects a gender bias Kohlberg?s theory is based on a male norm that puts abstract principles above relationships and concern for others In contrast to Kohlberg?s justice perspective, Gilligan argues for a care perspective (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Prosocial Behavior   Kohlberg?s and Gilligan?s theories have focused on moral reasoning Study of prosocial moral behavior emphasizes behavioral aspects of moral development (doing rather than thinking) sharing is one aspect of prosocial behavior by the elementary school years, children express objective ideas about fairness (Grusec, Davidov, & Lundell, 2002) (Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender Stereotypes, Similarities and Differences Gender stereotypes -- broad categories that reflect general impressions and beliefs about females and males Similarities and differences between boys and girls -- bear in mind? the differences are averages even when differences are reported, there is considerable gender overlap the differences may be due primarily to biological and/or sociocultural factors (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender Differences: Physical Development   Males grow to be 10% taller Females have a longer life expectancy Females are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders Males have twice the risk of coronary disease Male hormones promote the growth of long bones; female hormones stop such growth at puberty Researchers have found some differences in the brains of males and females (Goldstein & others, 2001; Kimura, 2000) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender Differences: Cognitive Development   Males have better math and visuospatial skills whereas females have better verbal abilities Later studies showed verbal differences between females and males had virtually disappeared, but that math and visuospatial differences still existed Cognitive differences between females and males have been exaggerated (Maccoby & Jacklin,1974) (Maccoby, 1987) (Hyde, 2005, 2007) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender Differences: Socioemotional Development   Boys are more physically aggressive than girls Girls tend to be more verbally aggressive Boys are more likely to hide negative emotions Girls are less likely to express disappointment that might hurt others? feelings (White, 2001) (Crick & others, 2004; Underwood, 2004) (Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Types of Aggression Instrumental aggression: Actively initiated to get something, often cool, planned; (person can feel excited and powerful) Johnny kicks Manuel to gain possession of blocks Sally spreads a rumor about Mariah to replace her as Sarah?s best friend Reactive aggression: occurs in response to feeling frustrated or ?done in? by another person; often disorganized rage; ( person often feels furious!) Manuel, infuriated at Johnny, kicks him back Relational aggression? hostile acts that attack the person indirectly by destroying relationships. (especially prevalent in girls!) Direct aggression ? open, everyone can see it (yelling, hitting) Indirect aggression - carried out deviously, by destroying relationships ? rumors, exclusion (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Gender Differences in Prosocial Behavior Females view themselves as more prosocial and empathic Across childhood and adolescence, females engage in more prosocial behavior The biggest gender difference occurs for kind and considerate behavior with a smaller difference in sharing (Eisenberg & Morris, 2004) (Eisenberg & Fabes, 1998; Eisenberg, Fabes, & Spinrad, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Developmental Changes in Parent-Child Relationships In middle and late childhood years, parents spend considerably less time with children Parents continue to be important Parents support and stimulate academic achievement Children receive less physical discipline than they did as preschoolers Children in grade school use more self-regulation (Huston & Ripke, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Parents as Managers Parents can play important roles managers of children?s opportunities monitors of children?s behavior social initiators and arrangers Family management practices are positively related to students? grades and self-responsibility, and negatively to school-related problems (Parke & Buriel, 2006) (Taylor, 1996) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. For Single Mother Families, Low Income is the Norm The title of this slide IS the gist. Know percentage of single-parent-headed households and percentages of them below poverty (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Developmental Changes in Peer Relations Reciprocity becomes especially important in peer interchanges Amount of time spent in social interaction with peers increases Size of their peer group increases Peer interaction is less closely supervised by adults Until age 12, same-sex peer groups are preferred (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Peer Status Sociometric status -- describes the extent to which children are liked or disliked by their peer group 5 peer statuses Popular children Average children Neglected children Rejected children Controversial children (Ladd, Herald, & Andrews, 2006) (Wentzel & Asher,1995) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Being Popular Popular children give out reinforcements listen carefully maintain open lines of communication with peers are happy and control their negative emotions show enthusiasm and concern for others are self-confident without being conceited (Hartup, 1983; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 1998). (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Other Statuses Neglected children -- low rates of interaction with their peers; often described as shy by peers Rejected children often have more serious adjustment problems than those who are neglected Some but not all rejected children are aggressive (Coie, 2004; Ladd, 2005) (Ladd, 2006; Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006; Hymel, McDougall, & Renshaw, 2004) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Social Cognition Social cognition -- thinking about social matters important for understanding peer relationships 5 steps in processing information about the social world decode social cues interpret search for a response select an optimal response enact (Dodge, 1983) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Bullying Bullied children reported more loneliness and difficulty in making friends Anxious and socially withdrawn children may be victimized because they are non-threatening and unlikely to retaliate Aggressive children may be the targets because their behavior is irritating to bullies (DeRosier & Marcus, 2005; Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Roberts, 2005) (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Victims of bullies had higher incidence of headaches more abdominal pain sleeping problems and feeling tiredness more depression Those who did the bullying were more likely to have a poor academic record and to smoke and drink alcohol (Fekkes, Pijpers, & Verloove-Vanhorick, 2004) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Reducing Bullying Teachers and schools can employ several strategies Get older peers to serve as monitors Develop school-wide rules and sanctions against bullying and post them Incorporate the message of the anti-bullying program into other community activities Identify bullies and victims early Use social skills training to improve bullies? behavior (Hyman & others, 2006; Limber, 1997, 2004; Milsom & Gallo, 2006) (Macklem, 2003) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Constructivist Approach Constructivist approach -- learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with guidance from the teacher children should be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher (Eby, Herrell, & Jordan, 2006; Eggen & Kauchak, 2006; Morrison, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Direct Instruction Approach Direct instruction approach -- structured, teacher-centered approach characterized by teacher direction and control, high expectations for students? progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum Important goal: maximizing student learning (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Constructivist versus Direct Instruction Approach Constructivists argue that direct instruction turns children into passive learners and does not challenge them to think critically or creatively Direct instructions say that constructivists do not give enough attention to the content of a discipline and instruction is too relativistic and vague (Duffy & Kirkley, 2004) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Accountability Demands for accountability include state-mandated tests to measure just what students have or have not learned high expectations and high standards for students (McNergney & McNergney, 2007) (Revelle, 2004) (Lewis, 2006) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Socioeconomic Status and Ethnicity Get the gist! Schools in low-income areas are more likely to: have more students with low achievement test scores have low graduation rates have small percentages of students going to college have young teachers with less experience encourage rote learning have buildings and classrooms that are old and crumbling (Spring, 2008) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Ethnicity in Schools School segregation remains a factor in U.S. education The school experiences of students from different ethnic groups vary considerably Institutional racism, by which teachers accept a low level of performance from children of color, permeates many American schools (Banks, 2006) (Bennett, 2007; Spring, 2008) (Ogbu & Stern, 2001; Spencer, 1999) (c) 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.