Chapter 16

StudyBlue printing of Chapter 16 html, body, div, span, applet, object, iframe, h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, p, blockquote, pre, a, abbr, acronym, address, big, cite, code, del, dfn, em, font, img, ins, kbd, q, s, samp, small, strike, strong, sub, sup, tt, var, b, u, i, center, fieldset, form, label, legend, table, caption, tbody, tfoot, thead, tr, th, td { margin: 0; padding: 0; border: 0; outline: 0; font-size: 100%; background: transparent; } body { line-height: 1; } blockquote, q { quotes: none; } blockquote:before, blockquote:after, q:before, q:after { content: ''; content: none; } /* remember to define focus styles! */ :focus { outline: 0; } /* remember to highlight inserts somehow! */ ins { text-decoration: none; } del { text-decoration: line-through; } /* tables still need 'cellspacing="0"' in the markup */ table { border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0; } /* end RESET */ .header { min-width:800px; } .logo { padding:6px 20px 2px 20px; margin:0; font-size:25px; font-weight:bold; color:#808285; position:relative; border-bottom: 1px solid #c5c5c5; } .logo-blue { color:#70adc4; } .logo-desc { font-weight:normal; font-size:19px; color:#cccccc; margin-top:50px; position:absolute; display: none; } .back-button { position:absolute; top:20px; right:20px; font-size:13px; line-height:25px; color:rgb(0,175,225); font-weight:normal; } .back-button a { color:rgb(0,175,225); } .instructions { padding:0; margin:0; width:100%; position:relative; color:rgb(100,100,100); } .step-holder { border-left:1px solid #ededed; margin-left:20px; } .steps { padding:15px 0; float:left; width:24%; border-right:1px solid #ededed; text-align:center; } .steps-01 { } .steps-02 { } .steps-03 { } .steps-04 { } .label { padding:5px 10px; } .print-button { } .print-button a { background-color:rgb(0,175,225); color:white; line-height: 19px; padding:9px 8px 5px 30px; font-size:14px; text-decoration:none; background-image: url(images/printer.png); background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: 7px 50%; -moz-border-radius: 5px; -webkit-border-radius: 5px; } .print-button a:hover { background-color:black; } .theNote .content { width: 8.0in !important; margin: 5px auto; padding:20px; background-color:white; } .theNote .header { border-bottom: 1px dashed #C8C8C8; font-size: 17px; padding: 0 0 10px; line-height: 19px; color: #00ADE1; min-width:500px; } .theNote .body { font-size: 14px; line-height: 19px; padding: 10px 0; } .theNote{ padding:6px 0; clear:both; background-color: rgb(200,200,200); } .theNote h3{ color: rgb(100,100,100); } .theNote h1, .theNote h3{ background-color:white; padding:2px 20px; width:8.0in !important; margin: 0 auto; font-size: 15px; } .theNote h1{ padding-top: 10px; font-size: 15px; } .theNote h1:first-child{ font-size: 20px; } .theNote h3 { font-size: 14px; font-weight: normal; } #options { border: 3px double #ccc; padding: 5px 12px; margin: 10px 50px 10px 20px; float: left; } #info { border-top: 1px solid #ccc; padding-top: 5px; font-style: italic; } li { margin: 5px 10px 5px 25px; } ul li { list-style: disc; } ol li { list-style: decimal; } img { border: 0; } table { clear: both; width: 100%; border: 1px solid #c5c5c5; border-width: 1px 0; margin: 0; page-break-after: always; } table#page { page-break-after: auto; } td { text-align: center; font-size: 12px; border-bottom: 1px dashed #c5c5c5; height: 1.75in; width: 50%; padding-left: 15px; } .leftside { border-right: 1px solid #cccccc; padding: 0 15px 0 0; } .bottom td { border-bottom: none; } .clearfix { clear:both; line-height:1px; height:1px; } img { max-width:80%; max-height:150px; margin:20px; } @media print {.header { display: none; } .content .header{ display:inherit; } table { border: 1px dashed #bbb; border-width: 1px 0; } .theNote{ background-color:white; } } Definitions: Signal Xduction : When one type of signal is converted into another Cell Signaling : Reception & Xduction Hormones : Signaling molecules Local Mediator s: Process of bypassing bloodstream to exert an influence on other cells Used in Wound Closure & Cell Proliferation Molecules Used for Inflammation at the site of an infections Neuronal Signaling ( via NeuroXmitter): Signal processes that occur over long distances within the Neural network Neural Transmitters exchange signals over 100nm gaps Steroid Hormones: Signal Molecule that relies highly on intracellular receptor protein Extracellular Signal Molecules : Molecules that are too large or hydrophilic to cross plasma membrane & interact with receptors to initiate responses Molecules that are small enough to make it inside the cell & activate intracellular enzymes Molecular Switches : Intracellular signals that act as activators or in activators or cellular processes . Once activated these items can turn on other proteins in the signaling pathways. Protein Kinease : Helps the Molecular switch take a phosphate group onto its complex Protein phosphatase: Switches Molecular switch in opposite direction by removing phosphate group Small Messengers : or Secondary Messengers: A subunit of messengers created to facilitate a response by a system. Ras : A very important signaling complex activated by Tyrosine Chapter Review: Monomeric GTPases: General family of GTP binding proteins. MAP-kinase signaling module: 3-kinase protein module used Types of Cell Communication Cell-Cell : Communication via proteins in one membrane interacting with receptor proteins embedded in plasma membrane of target Endocrine-Blood: Hormones sent throughout the blood stream that get absorbed Paracrine Signaling: Local Signaling into localized cells surrounding the transmitter Neuronal Signaling : Signaling via Long electrochemical based pathways Selectivity Cell requires that specific receptor to respond to those receptors proteins in solution Communication Occurs via interactions with intracellular signaling molecules & alter effector protein activity Communication together has the ability to help foster or inhibit reactions Can induce quick rxn's or slow processes Based on the availability of some intracellular proteins Some slower rxn's require changes in cell expression & new protein production Steroids & Thyroids: Have the ability to pass through the plasma membrane & activate signal transduction Dissolved Gasses: Can pass through plasma membrane & activate specific intracellular proteins. IE: Nitric Oxide( Local mediator): Dilates Blood vessels ( Viagra & erections) Synthesized from Arginine half life of 5-10 s. Nitroglycerin has similar effects on the body activates enzyme: Guanylyl cyclase STIMS: cyclic GMP Signal Pathways Relay Signals to help proliferate through the cell Amplify signals allowing a small extracellular response to create a large intracellular response Integrate Signals coming from varying signaling pathway Modulation Factors: Can be intracellular responses & extracellular responses Distribute Signals to one or more other pathways or effector proteins. Molecular Switches: Phosphate : Key molecule in this process that activates/inactivates a molecule 2 Types of systems that operate via this system Serine/Threonine kinease: PhosphoreZ on serines or threonines Tyrosine kinease : PhosporeZ on tyrosine 2nd system GTP binding proteins switches: GTP/GDP Activation/De-Activation Cell Surface receptors: Ion Channel : Ions across channel Convert Chemical signals into E: Using Na ,K, Ca, Cl Acetocholine acts on skeletal muscle cells G-Protein Coupled receptors : Activate either enzymes or ion channels Acetocholine acts on heart muscle cells through Enzyme Coupled receptors: Act as enzymes or associate w/ enzymes inside the cell ------------------------------------------------------------------- GPCR: 7 Pass trans membrane protein 3 binding subunits (Alpha*,Beta,Gamma*) * attached to plasma membrane Once activated Can split into an Alpha & Beta/Gamma Complex Can both activate various processes Signal intensity & Delay is a func of binding time Can only be de-activated by the Alpha subunit side Can directly regulate Ion channel IE: Acetocholine is the receptor that binds to GPCR in the heart muscle cells that activates and lets Beta/Gamma complex activate & open K channel which expels K and reduces conductivity Can directly regulate enzymes: Adenylyl Cyclase Directly responsible for C-Amp production CAMP: Activates CAMP-depenedent protein kinase Facilitates the process of phoPhoreZ of serines & threonines Cyclic Amp Phosphodiesterase Deactivates C-Amp proudction The process of Act/De-Act is in the matter of seconds Phospholipase C: Activates and cleaves Inositol Phospholid to create DAG( Diacylglyercol) Recruits & Activates Protein Kinase C ( requires Ca) Once activated helps phorPhoReZ items. Inositol Trphophate ( IP3) Binds to Calcium Channels in ER. Which creates large flux of CA in the cell ( normally low) Calcium signaling Can activate calmodulin: which can wrap around various proteins & alter activity This complex targets various structures including Cam-Kinease ( memory) For the photoreceptor in the eye has the ability to amplify or attenuate light signals coming in. attenuation is achieved through negative feedback via ( Ca changes) -------------------- Enzyme Couple receptors: Trans membrane proteins are ligand-binding domain Acts as an enzyme itself forms a complex with another protein that acts as an enzyme Can mediate direct rapid reconfigurations of the cytoskeleton Largest class are enzyme-coupled is receptor tyrosine kinase __________ Receptor tyrosine kinease Involves the binding of two monomers Dimer forms.. Cross PhysPhoreZ Phosphates are removed via protein tyrosine phosphatase Monomeric Ras is always activated by TYK RAS activates MAP-kinase signaling module MapK PhosPhoreZ effector proteins( transcription regulars) Has to ability to stimulate cell proliferation Promote cell survival Induce differentiation Some signal cascades are more direct than others Local mediators: (Cytokines) bind to receptors that activate transcription regulators that are held in inactive states near the plasma membrane (STATS: SIgnal transducers and activators of transcription) head straight for the nucleus where they stimulate the transcription of specific genes. IE inferons, cytokines produced by infects cells that instruct other cells to produce proteins that make them more resistant to viral infection Cytokine tyrosine Kinases ( Jaks), phosphoreZ, activate STAT, transcription actions