Chapter 8.docx

Chapter 8:  Europe   Introduction ?    Europe is one of the most diverse regions. ?    Within an area smaller than North America, there are a variety of ?     Climates ?     Landforms ?     Agricultures ?    There are 40 countries with many different ?     Languages ?     Money ?     cultures ?    Because of this diversity, Europe has a long history of warfare usually along nationalist lines. ?    In the 20th century, Europe was the principal battleground of two world wars and the 44-year Cold War.   ?   Europe is currently at a point of both globalization, with the formation of a supranational political and economic entity, the European Union (EU), and (somewhat contradictorily) national identity (Fig. 8.2), with the dissolution of several Eastern European countries, most notably Yugoslavia.   Environmental Geography:  Human Transformance of a Diverse Landscape ?   Introduction ?     Europe?s environmental diversity is extraordinary despite its relatively small size (fig. 8.3) ?  Europe has great latitudinal extent (distance from equator), from the Arctic to the Mediterranean subtropics (Fig. 8.4) ?  Europe?s latitudinal controls are modified by the interaction of land and large bodies of water: ?    Atlantic Ocean ?    Black Sea ?    Baltic Sea ?    Mediterranean Sea ?  The long history of human settlement has changed Europe?s landscapes in fundamental ways over thousands of years   ?  Environmental Issues, Local and Global, East and West (Fig. 8.5) ?    Europe?s long history of agriculture, resource-extraction, industrial manufacturing, and urbanization has created many serious environmental problems that cross national boundaries including ? air pollution ? Acid rain ? Water pollution ?    The European Union has been successful in addressing these problems with regional solutions ?    Western Europe has one of the ?greenest? environments ?     Eastern Europe, with its communist economic system, had few environmental regulations, so its environment is not good (Fig. 8.6) ?     Regional cooperation is needed to address all these concerns ?     Now that East European countries are part of the EU, those countries are getting cleaned up (fig. 8.7)   ?   Landform and Landscape Regions (Fig. 8.8) ?     European Lowlands (also called the North European Plain): ?  Southwest France to Poland, including southeast England ?  Has a high population density ?  Includes many of the most important rivers and port cities ?  South of the Rhine delta has good farmlands (Fig. 8.9) ?    Alpine Mountain System:  ? this east-west series of mountains stretches from the Atlantic to the Black Sea ? Pyrenees form borders between Spain and France, peaks top 10,000 feet, Basque and Catalan people live in the Pyrenees ? Alps extend 500 miles from France to Austria; highest in West, reaching 15,000 feet ? Appenines, the ?spine of Italy;? include volcanoes Mt. Etna and Mt. Vesuvius ? Carpathians, under 9,000 feet, stretch from eastern Austria to Romania and Yugoslavia ?     Central Uplands: ?  Between Alps and Lowlands ?  From France to Czech Republic ?  Contain many raw materials, like iron and coal, for manufacturing ?     Western Highlands ?  From Portugal to Finland, including British Isles ?  Fjords (flooded U-shaped valley coastlines) found in the north ?  This shield landscape contains 600 million year old rocks exposed by recent glaciation (Fig. 8.10)   ?  Europe?s Climates (fig. 8.11) ?    Maritime West Coast Climate along the Atlantic Coast: ? No months below freezing, but cold, rain, and snow are common ? Summers are often cloudy and overcast with drizzle or rain ?    Continental climate farther inland: ? A month or two averages below freezing temperatures ? Much of the precipitation comes as rain from summer frontal systems and local thundershowers ?    Mediterranean Climate in southern Europe, from Spain to Greece: ? Dry summer season ?    Nice weather for tourists ?    may include drought ? irrigation is common (Fig. 8.12)   ?   Seas, Rivers, Ports, and Coastlines ?     Europe is a maritime region ?     Even landlocked countries have access to the ocean by way of interconnected rivers and canals. ?     Rivers and Ports: ?  Many rivers are navigable and connected by canals that allow barge traffic throughout Europe ?  Rivers include ?    Loire ?    Seine ?    Rhine ?    Elbe (to Atlantic) ?    Vistula ?    Danube (Europe?s longest, which flows to the Black Sea) ?    Rhone (flows into the Mediterranean Sea) ? Europe has many port cities: ?    Bordeau (Garonne) ?    Le Havre (Seine) ?    London (Thames) ?    Rotterdam (Rhine) ?    Hamburg (Elbe) ?    Szcezin (oder) ?    Gdansk (Wisla) ? As Mediterranean forests were cut, erosion on the hills carried sediment down the rivers to their deltas ? This sediment filled in the historic ports used by the Greeks and Romans. ?    Reclaiming the Dutch Coastline: ? Polders ? diked agricultural settlements (fig. 8.13) ? Windmills were used to drain marshes ? Rising sea levels from global warming again make the Netherlands vulnerable to flooding   Population and Settlement:  Slow Growth and Rapid Migration ? Population Density in Core and Periphery: ?   The highest densities are found in the historical industrial core (Fig. 8.14): ?England ?Netherlands ?Northern France ?Northern Italy ?Western Germany   ?  Natural Growth:  Beyond the Demographic Transition ?    Death rates are higher than birth rates (table 8.1) ?    Immigration prevents population loss ?    Some European countries offer financial incentives to couples who have children ?    Causes of decline: ? These populations are ?    Highly urbanized ?    Highly industrialized ? Women are increasingly in the workplace ? Widespread contraception ? Lack of affordable housing   ? Migration to and within Europe (fig 8.15) ?   Widespread resistance to unlimited immigration into Europe: ?Scarce jobs should go to Europeans first ?Concerns about foreign terrorism and dilution of national culture ?   But when the economy is good, labor shortages could be problematic and solved only through immigration; younger immigrants are needed to keep up tax revenues ?     The European Union is working toward a common immigration policy ?     Guest workers:  ?  Immigrants brought into a country to work, usually low-wage ?  Most guest workers in Germany are Turkish ?  European countries see migrants from their former colonies in Africa, Asia, and the Caribbean (Fig. 8.16)   ?   The Landscapes of Urban Europe ?     The Past in the Present ?  Three historical eras dominate most European city landscapes (Fig. 8.17) ?  Medieval (900-1500 AD) ?    Narrow, winding streets ?    Three- or four-story masonry buildings ?    cities were densely settled ?    buildings were right next to streets ?    green space was only in parks and public squares ?    Now living here is undesirable ?    Many European cities are making laws that protect their historic medieval landscapes (fig. 8.18) ?  Renaissance Baroque (1500-1800): ?    wider streets ?    larger gardens ?    Monuments ?    more open spaces ?    Defensive walls and fortifications (because of the invention of high powered assault artillery) ?     The Industrial Period (1800-present):  ?  walls and fortifications were removed ?  factories and industrial areas were built on the edge of the city ?  Railroad tracks and urban sprawl development ?     Protecting the Sense of Place ?  Europeans take strong sense of cultural identity from their cities and protect their urban landscapes ?  Europeans protect skylines by prohibiting building of high-rises in central cities pushing them to outlying areas ?  Preservation of historic buildings is an important part of the European experience and includes the protection of skylines and historical preservation (Fig. 8.19) ?  Paris is a leader in historic preservation ?  Landscape protection is also important   Cultural Coherence and Diversity:  A Mosaic of Differences ?    Differences in languages, customs, and religions have created local and regional identities that have, in turn, caused conflict ?    European cultures have influenced many world regions through colonialism ?    Many European cultures are trying to protect themselves from U.S.-influenced popular culture (Fig. 8.20) ?    Geographies of Language (fig. 8.21) ?     Language has always been an important part of nationalism and group identity in Europe ?     Most Europeans learn at least two languages   ?  Geographies of Religion, Past and Present (Fig. 8.23) ?    Many of today?s conflicts stem from historical religious differences ?    The Schism Between Western and Eastern Christianity: ? When Greek missionaries refused to accept the Roman Catholic hierarchy and control by Roman bishops, the two groups split in 1054 AD ? The Eastern church split into Orthodox sects closely linked to specific nations and states ? Western Christian Churches use the Latin alphabet ? Eastern Orthodox Churches use the Cyrillic alphabet ?    The Protestant Revolt ? In the 16th century, Protestants split from the Catholic Church ? Northern Ireland is the only remaining place where there are still tensions between these two groups ?    Conflicts with Islam: ? Muslims were reasonably tolerant of Christians and their religion in lands they conquered, but Christians did not reciprocate ? The purpose of the Christian Crusades was to reclaim Jerusalem from the Turks. ? Ottoman Turks expanded Islam into the Balkans ?     A Geography of Judaism ?  Jews in Europe were forced from Palestine during the Roman era, settled in Moorish Spain where Islam showed greater tolerance for Judaism than Christianity did ?  When Christians conquered this Muslim-controlled area, they expelled the Jews, and many settled in an area of Eastern Europe called ?the Pale? ?  During World War II, Nazis from Germany killed around 6 million Jewish people while others suffered in concentration camps ?  Since 1990, more than 100,000 Jews moved from Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, and Eastern Europe to Germany (Fig. 8.24) ?    The Patterns of Contemporary Religion: ? Western Europe is becoming more secularized ? organized religion does not have the influence it once had ? Conflict in Northern Ireland between Irish nationalists (mostly Roman Catholic) and British loyalists (mostly Protestant) has religious aspects (Fig.  8.25)   ?    European Culture in Global Context ?     Globalization and Cultural Nationalism: ?  Since WWII, Europe has been inundated with America through music, television, and consumer goods ?  U.K., Spain, Italy, and Hungary accept it ?  France and Germany have taken measures to prevent this invasion ?     Migrants and Culture: ?  Influx of Muslim migrants (4.5 million) is adding a new cultural element ?  French leaders attempted to prohibit Muslim women and girls from wearing a head scarf, triggering riots ?  Many European countries contain nationalistic parties with disguised agendas of excluding migrants (fig. 8.27)   Geopolitical Framework:  A Dynamic Map ?  There are 40 independent states in the small area of Europe ?  Europe invented the nation-state:  a relatively homogenous cultural group (nation) with its own political territory (state) ?  Within the last two decades, seven new states have appeared in Eastern Europe, more than half through war (Fig. 8.28) ?  Although this region has been ravaged by war in the past, most of its people now show a remarkable spirit of cooperation   ? Redrawing the Map of Europe Through War ?   In the 20th Century, Europe?s borders have been changed by two major wars (Fig. 8.29) ?   World War I (1914-1918): ?Two groups of opponents:  France, Great Britain, Russia vs. Germany, Italy, and Austria-Hungary ?Treaty of Versailles ended the war, punished the losers through loss of territory, and created several ?new? countries: (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) ?     World War II (1939-1945): ?   Worldwide depression in 1930s brought economic hardship to Europe: ?    High unemployment ?    Food shortages ?    Political unrest ?   Three ideologies competed to solve Europe?s problems: ?    Western democracy and capitalism ?    Communism from the U.S.S.R. ?    Fascist totalitarianism from Italy and Germany ?   Germany began to take over much of Continental Europe ?   Again, two groups of opponents:  Germany and Italy (?Axis?) vs. Britain, France, U.S.S.R., U.S. (?Allies?) ?   Japan joined the Axis and attacked the U.S.?s Pearl Harbor in Hawaii ?   Axis surrendered in 1945 ?   Allies divided Europe, and the Cold War began   ?   A Divided Europe, East and West ?     Cold War Geography: ?  Russia (U.S.S.R.) occupied Eastern Europe, Western Allies occupied Western Europe; city of Berlin and Germany were divided ?  U.S.S.R. used its occupied countries as a buffer zone, a region that would protect Russia from further European invasion ?  Border between east and west was closed off by what came to be called the Iron Curtain (with the exception of the concrete Berlin Wall, this was not a physical entity, but rather a political idea) (Fig. 8.30) ?there was a constant threat of war: ?   North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in Western Europe ?   the Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern Europe ?Both sides stockpiled weapons and waged a propaganda war raising fear between the groups ?     The Cold War Thaw: ?  Began in 1989, when Poland elected a non-Communist leader ?  East and West Berliners tore down the wall (Fig. 8.31) ?  Political instability in the U.S.S.R., and a desire for economic and political restructuring in the countries of Eastern Europe were key causes of the thaw ?  Revolutions in Warsaw Pact countries were non-violent except in Romania ?  One outcome was a revival of national feelings in the region with Czechoslovakia dividing peacefully while Yugoslavia divided as a result of armed conflicts   Economic and Social Development:  Integration and Transition ?     Europe ?      Is the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution ?      Invented the modern economics system of industrial capitalism ?     Eastern Europe is now in a period of chaotic economic, political, and social transition (table 8.2) ?     Europe?s Industrial Revolution (1730-1850) ?      Industrial Revolution brought two fundamental changes: ?   Machines replaced human labor in many manufacturing processes ?   Inanimate (rather than people or animals) energy sources (such as water, steam, coal, petroleum) powered the new machines ?      Centers of Change: ?   Yorkshire and Lancashire, England were the centers of innovation for the industrialization of textile production ?   These cities had water sources to power waterwheels (Fig. 8.32) ?   raw materials (wool from nearby sheep and cotton from the U.S.) were available here ?Improvements in steam technology made waterwheels obsolete ?Coal-based coke (replacing wood charcoal) was a cheap fuel source, so factories were built near coal fields ?Iron and steel manufacturing became important ?London became an important port and financial center ?     Development of Industrial Regions in Continental Europe: ?  First, industrial regions were established around 1820 on the French-Belgian border, near the Sambre and Meuse Rivers (Fig. 8.33) ?  Coal to fuel the factories was found nearby ?  By 1850, there were more: ?    Germany - Ruhr district (Fig. 8.34) ?   Used up its iron ore deposits by the early 1900s ?   Was the industrial strength behind the Nazi?s war machine ?   Was heavily bombed during WWII ?   ECSC and EEC: ?(European Coal and Steel Community and European Economic Community) ?Ancestors of today?s European Union ?From its start as a coordinated effort to drop coal and steel tariffs, ECSC grew to create a common market for member countries (France, Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg):  the European Economic Community (EEC) ?    European Community and Union: ? In 1965, the EEC created a council, court, parliament, and commission and changed its name to the European Community (EC) ? By 1991, the EC had become the European Union (EU), and more members joined (Fig. 8.35) ? The EU has a wider mission that includes ?    common foreign policies ?    mutual security agreements ?    greater economic integration ?    a common currency ?    Euroland:  The European Monetary Union: ? On January 1, 1999, 12 EU members adopted the Euro, a new common currency for business and trade transactions ? On January 1, 2002, regular people in the countries using the currency (?Euroland?) started using the euro in their everyday lives ? Countries using the euro are also committed to a common set of fiscal policies to ?    control inflation ?    coordinate economic activity ?    standardize wages and benefits   ?  Economic Integration, Disintegration, and Transition in Eastern Europe ?    Historically, Eastern Europe has been less developed economically than Western Europe ?    It does not have many natural resources ?    It has been under the control of outsiders (Ottomans, Hapsburgs, Germans, and Soviet Russians) ?    The Soviet economic planning of the Cold War period attempted to develop Eastern Europe and serve Soviet goals ?    The collapse of the Soviet system cast Eastern Europe into chaos ?    The Results of Soviet Economic Planning: ? The Soviet Russians (communists) redeveloped Eastern Europe after WWII as a command economy (centrally planned and controlled economy, generally associated with socialist or communist countries, in which all goods, services, agricultural and industrial products were strictly regulated) ? Agriculture was ?    Collectivized (state-owned) ?    Mechanized ?    Centrally planned ? The state ?    created manufacturing jobs ?    Subsidized industry ?    The Results: ? Collectivization of agriculture did not improve food production ? Food shortages were common, especially in cities ? Farmers fared better than city dwellers since they had personal gardens to meet their own food needs ? During the Soviet era, many new factories were built (in cities and in rural areas) paid for by the government ? CMEA planners focused on heavy industry (e.g., steel instead of consumer goods), but became dependent on cheap fuel and raw materials from the U.S.S.R. ?     Transition and Turmoil Since 1991: ?  After the U.S.S.R. disintegrated, countries in its sphere of influence (i.e., Eastern Europe) went through tremendous changes ?  Russia stopped exporting cheap natural gas and petroleum to Eastern Europe causing industrial production to collapse there (Fig. 8.39) ?  Most East European countries have redirected their economic and political attention to the West ?  Many introduced privatization (the transfer of companies owned by the state to private hands) ?  Now that western goods are available, few can afford them The End