Chapters 1-4, 6, 12 & 13
Health And Human Sciences 354 with Allyn at University of Wisconsin - River Falls
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Biomechanics
application of mechanical principles in the study of living organisms.
Purpose of Study Biomechanics
1. enhance performance
2. reduce injury
3. equipment design/selection
Mechanics
branch of physics that analyzes the actions of forces on particles and mechanical systems.
Statics
branch of mechanics dealing with systems in a constant state of motion.
Dynamics
branch of mechanics dealing with systems subject to acceleration.
Kinematics
study of the description of motion, including considerations of space and time.
i.e. relative position & timing, distance, time, speed, acceleration, angles
Kinetics
study of the action of forces.
i.e. forces, pressure, inertia
Anthropometric
related to the dimensions and weights of body segments.
Kinesiology
study of human movement.
Sports Medicine
clinical and scientific aspects of sports and exercise.
Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
overuse condition caused by compression of the median nerve in the carpal tunnel and involving numbness, tingling and pain in the hand.
Quantitative
involving the use of numbers.
(six meters, 30 seconds, etc)
Qualitative
involving nonnumeric descriptions of quality.
(over-rotated, slow, etc.)
Inference
process of forming deductions from available information.
Time (equation)
time = distance/speed
t=d/s
Force (equation)
Force = mass x acceleration
F=m x a
Ways to Measure Kinetics
1. Force Platform [portable]
2. In Shoe Pressure Systems
3. Pressure Mats/Maps
4. Electromyography (EMG)
Ways to Measure Kinematics
1. Motion Analysis Systems (MAS)
2. Electrogoniometer
3. Accelerometer
4. Photo Cells/Timing Devices
Types of Motion
1. Linear
2. Angular/Axis of Rotation
3. General
Linear Motion
along a line that may be straight of curved, with all parts of the body moving the same direction at the same speed
1. Rectilinear: along a straight line
2. Curviliner: along a curved line
General Motion
Involving translation and rotation simultaneously.
Angular
involving rotation around a central line or point.
Translation
linear motion.
Axis of Rotation
imaginary line perpendicular to the plane of rotation and passing through the center of rotation.
System
object or group of objects chosen by the analyst for study.
Anatomical Reference Position
erect standing position with all body parts, including the palms of the hands, facing forward; considered the starting position for body segment movements.
Cardinal Planes
three imaginary perpendicular reference planes that divide the body in half by mass.
Sagittal Plane
plane in which forward and backward movements of the body and body segments occur. (splits body from left to right)
Frontal Plane
plane in which lateral movements of the body and body segments occur. (splirts body from front to back)
Transverse Plane
plane in which horizontal body and body segment movements occur when the body is in an erect standing position. (splits body from top and bottom)
Mediolateral Axis
imaginery line around which sagittal plane rotations occur.
Anteroposterior Axis
imaginary line around which frontal plane rotations occur.
Longitudinal Axis
imaginary line around which transverse plane rotations occur.
Inertia
tendency of a body to resist a change in its state of motion.
Mass
quantity of matter contained in an object.
Force
push or pull; the product of mass and acceleration.
Free Body Diagram
sketch that shows a defined system in isolation with all of the force vectors action on the system.
Net Force
resultant force derived from the composition of two or more forces.
Center of Gravity (Mass)
point around which a body's weight is equally balanced, no matter how the body is positioned.
Weight
attractive force that the earth exerts on a body.
Weight (equation)
weight = mass x acceleration (due to gravity)
w=m x agravity
lb to kg = 2.2
Pressure
force per unit of area which force acts.
Volume
space occupied by a body.
Pressure (equation)
pressure = Force/Area
p=F/a
Density
mass per unit of volume.
Density (equation)
density = m/v
d=m/v
Specific Weight
weight per unit of volume.
Torque
rotary effect of a force about an axis of rotation, measure as the product of the force and the perpendicular distance between the force's line of action and the axis.
Torque (equation)
Torque = Force/distance(perpendicular)
T=Fd(perpendicular)
Impulse
product of force and the time over which the force acts.
Impulse (equation)
impulse = Force x time
impulse=F x t
Compression
pressing or squeezing force directed axially through a body.
Tension
pulling or stretching force directed axially through a body.
Shear
force directed parallel to a surface.
Stress
distribution of force within a body, quantified as force divided by the area over which the force acts.
Bending
asymmetric loading that produces tension on one side of a body's longitudinal axis and compression on the other side.
Axial
directed along the longitudinal axis of a body.
Torsion
load-producing twisting of a body around its longitudinal axis.
Combined Loading
simultaneous action of more than one of the pure forms of loading.
Deformation
change in shape.
Stress (equation)
stress = Force/Area
stress=F/A
Yield Point (elastic limit)
point on the load deformation curve past which deformation is permanent.
Failure
loss of mechanical continuity.
Repetitive Loading
repeated application of a subacute load that is usually of relatively low magnitude.
Acute Loading
application of a single force of sufficient magnitude to cause injury to a biological tissue.
Myoelectric Activity
electric current or voltage produced by a muscle developing tension.
Transducers
devices that detect signals.
Vector
physical quantity that possesses both magnitude and direction.
Scalar
physical quantity that is completely described by its magnitude.
Vector Composition
process of determining a single vector from two or more vectors by vector addition.
Resultant
single vector that results from vector composition.
Vector Resolution
operation that replaces a single vector with two perpendicular vectors such that the vector composition of the two perpendicular vectors yields the original vector.
Lever
a relatively rigid object that may be made to rotate about an axis by the application of force.
Stiffness
ratio of stress to strain in a loaded material--that is, the stress divided by the relative amount of change in the structure's shape.
Compressive Strength
ability to resist pressing or squeezing force.
Tensile Strength
ability to resist pulling or stretching.
Collagen resists tension and provides flexibility to bone.
Porous
containing pores or cavities.
Cortical Bone
compact mineralized connective tissue with low porosity that is found in the shafts of long bones.
Compact
Because cortical bone is stiffer then trabecular bone, it can withstand greater stress but less strain.
Trabecular Bone
less compact mineralized connective tissue with high porosity that is found in he ends of long bones and in the vertabrae.
Cancellous or spongy
Strain
amount of deformation divided by the original length of the structure or by the original angular orientation of the structure.
Anisotropic
exhibiting different mechanical properties in response to loads from different directions.
Bone is strongest in resisting compression and weakest in resisting shear.
Axial Skeleton
the skull, vertabrae, sternum and ribs.
Appendicular Skeleton
bones composing the body appendages.
Short Bones
small, cubical skeletal structures, including the carpals and tarsals.
Flat Bones
skeletal structures that are largely flat in shape--for example, the scapula.
Irregular Bones
skeletal structures of irregular shape--for example, the sacrum.
Long Bones
skeletal structures consisting of a long shaft with bulbous ends--for example, the femur.
Articular Cartilage
protective layer of firm, flexible connective tissue over the articulating ends of long bones.
Periosteum
double-layered membrane covering bone; muscle tendons attach to the outside layer and the internal layer is a side of osteoblast activity.
Osteoblasts
specialized bone cells that build new bone tissue.
Osteoclasts
specialized bone cells that resorb bone tissue.
Wolff's Law
indicated that bone strength increases and decreases as the functional forces on the bone increase and decrease.
Bone Hypertrophy
increase in bone mass resulting from a predominance of osteoblast activity.
Bone Atrophy
decrease in bone mass resulting from a predominance of osteoclast activity.
Osteoporosis
disorder involving decreased bone mass and strength with one or more resulting fractures.
Osteopenia
condition of reduced none mineral density that predisposes the individual to fractures.
Amenorrhea
cessation of menses. (Period stops)
Female Athlete Triad
Disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis.
Fracture
disruption in the continuity of a bone.
Impacted
pressed together by a compressive load.
Stress Fracture
fracture resulting from repeated loading of relatively low magnitude.
Stress Reaction
progressive bone pathology associated with repeated loading.
Parallel Elastic Component
passive elastic property of muscle derived from the muscle membranes.
Series Elastic Component
passive elastic property of muscle derived from the tendons.
Viscoelastic
having the ability to stretch or shorten over time.
Contractile Component
muscle property enabling tension development by stimulated muscle fibers.
Motor Units
a single motor neuron and all fibers it innervates.
Summation
building in an additive fashion.
Tetanus
state of muscle producing sustained maximal tension resulting from repetitive stimulation.
Fast-Twitch Fiber
a fiber that reaches peak tension relatively quickly.
Slow-Twitch Fiber
a fiber that reaches peak tension relatively slowly.
Parallel Fiber Arrangement
patter of fibers within a muscle in which the fibers are roughly parallel to the longitudinal axis of the muscle.
Pennate Fiber Arrangement
patter of fibers within a muscle with short fibers attaching to one or more tendons.
Concentric
describing a contraction involving shortening of a muscle.
Isometric
describing a contraction involving no change in muscle length.
Eccentric
describing a contraction involving lengthening of a muscle.
Agonist
role played by a muscle acting to cause a movement.
Antagonist
role played by a muscle acting to slow or stop a movement.
Stabilizer
role played by a muscle acting to stabilize a body part against some other force.
Neutralizer
role played by a muscle acting to eliminate an unwanted action produced by an agonist.
Active Insufficiency
limited ability of a two-joint muscle to produce force when joint position places the muscle on slack.
Passive Insufficiency
inability of a two-joint muscle to stretch to the extent required to allow full range of motion at all joints crossed.
Stretch-Shortening Cycle
eccentric contraction followed immediately by concentric contraction.
Electromechanical Delay
time between the arrival of neural stimulus and tension development by the muscle.
Law of Inertia
a body will maintain a state of rest or constant velocity unless acted on by an external force that changes the state.
Law of Acceleration
A force applied to a body causes an acceleration of the body of a magnitude proportional to the force, in the direction of the force, and inversely proportional to the body's mass. (F=ma)
Law of Reaction
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Law of Gravitation
All bodies are attracted to one another with a force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Fg=G(m1m2/d2)
Friction
force acting over the area of contact between two surfaces in the direction opposite that of motion or motion tendency.
Maximum Static Friction
maximum amount of friction that can be generated between two static surfaces.
Kinetic Friction
constant-magnitude friction generated between two surfaces in contact during motion.
Coefficient of Friction
number that serves as an index of the interaction between two surfaces in contact. Fm= μkR (kinetic friction) or Fm= μsR (static friction)
Normal Reaction Force
force acting perpendicular to two surfaces in contact.
Linear Momentum
quantity of motion, measured as the product of a body's mass and its velocity. M=mv
Momentum
is a vector quantity.
Impact
collision characterized by the exchange of a large force during a small time interval.
Perfectly Elastic Impact
impact during which the velocity of the system is conserved.
Perfectly Plastic Impact
impact resulting in the total loss of system velocity.
Coefficient of Restitution
number that serves as an index of elasticity for colliding bodies.
Work
in a mechanical context, force multiplied by the displacement of the resistance in the direction of the force. W=Fd
Power
rate of work production calculated as work divided by the time during which the work was done. Power= work/change in time P=W/ΔT P=Fd/ΔT P=Fv
Kinetic Energy
energy of motion, calculated as (1/2)mv2. KE=(1/2)mv2
Potential Energy
energy by virtue of a body's position or configuration, calculated as the product of weight and height. PE=wt x h
Strain Energy
capacity to do work by virtue of a deformed body's return to its original shape.
Moment Arm
shortest perpendicular distance between a force's line of action and an axis of rotation.
Lever
a simple machine consisting of a relatively rigid, barlike body that may be made to rotate about an axis.
Fulcrum
the point of support or axis about which a lever may be made to rotate.
First-Class Lever
lever positioned with the applied force and the resistance on opposite sides of the axis of rotation.
Second-Class Lever
lever positioned with the resistance between the applied force and the fulcrum.
Third-Class Lever
lever positioned with the applied fore between the fulcrum and the resistance.
Center of Mass
point around which the mass and weight of a body are balanced, no matter how the body is positioned.
Stability
resistance to disruption of equilibrium.
Balance
ability to control equilibrium.
Base of Support
area bound by the outermost regions of contact between a body and support surface or surfaces.
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Things like personalized quizzes and friendly reminders about when (and what) to study next.
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