Anthropology

•More dependence on small game ; less on big game

•Sedentization

•Population growth

•Migration

•Agriculture developed in marginal zones

similarities in Binefored-white and flannery theories

The bottleneck theory

•Very simple

•Gradual increase of population is the main cause of intensification (switchover from foraging to agriculture)

•Problem – not everyone thinks that forager population inevitably increased.

Archaeology

How do we know about pristine states?

soil was fertile

aquatic sources

River valleys were important because

population growth

First step in creating pristine states

Theory that agriculture developed due to desiccation (drying up) after melting of glaciers let to increased population density near oasis

Oasis theory

•Problem – no evidence of desiccation

•Problem – wouldn’t work in New World

Why was Oasis theory flawed

some people think that agriculture didn’t develop in best zones – instead in marginal zones (between desirable and undesirable land)

Robert Braidwood theorized that agriculture developed just becaue of the discovery of nuclear or rich soil zones. Why is this false?

•Increased reliance on aquatic resources after melting of glaciers

•Sedentization and population increase along rivers

•Migration away from rivers because of population increase

•Ag. Developed in marginal zones where migrants went

White-binford theory

Climate change led people depend on smaller animals/ seeds Sedentization (not necessarily near rivers) and pop. increase

Flannery THeory

Important implications for technology

Very little animal domestiation in new world lead too...

•Increasing reliance on grasses

•Sedentization led to increases in population density

•Seed gathering increased knowledge of possibilities for domestication

Reasons for domestication of agriculture

Women were doubtless the developers of agriculture – they were the gatherers

Developers of agriculture

sedentization

transition from nomadic to permanent, year-round settlement. ...

Almost all explanations involve an increase in population density and need to support more people

contrast in the reasons they give for such increase

How do expantations for agriculture compare and contrast

Squash , beans, and corn, corn

New world crops in Mexico?

7000 to 5000 years ago in Mexico

New world domesticatioin occured when and where?

Development of Agriculture

12,00 y7ears ago

Near east in what is now Irag Iran and Turkey

Perhaps the most significant event in human prehistory

When it began

and where

Barley , wheat, goat, sheep, pigs

Plants and animales domesticated in the Near east

Kinship

not the same as biological relationship. but a term that defines how people are connected and how they treat eachother

Age and sex

Division of labor for foragers was by

behavior formerly harmful becomes less harmful or even harmless

Morality often changes as...

Did not thank people because it would imply that the person was doing something unordinary

Biggest insult to foragers

Post-partum sexual taboos

Lengthy nursing periods leads to amenorrhea

Infanticide – especially female infanticide

Mathods of pupulation regulation among foragers

because until 10,000-12,000 years ago all human beings were foragers

Why is it necessary to learn about foragers?

Between 11,000 and 9,000 years ago (some debate)

When did domestication of plants and animals first occur

Fallow

Land that is not used for a number of years

Secondary growth

second wave of growth on a fallow

Agroforestry

the concept that land is always used. Even when it no longer produces plants. Could grow trees to used for wood

Possibilism

The physical environment limits food getting methods, but does not determine food getting methods

Foragers work less to get food... but use more energy

Why are foragers more complex than industrial intensive agriculture

Kung

Pygmies in Congo

Australian aborigines

North American Indians

List four forager societies

the more energy (both human and nonhuman) that a society spends on food-getting, the more complex it is

What Classifies a society as complex?

Conflicts between haves and have-nots •Resource depletion or scarcity

•Almost all contemporary world problems have to do with either ...

No division of rich and poor

Little resource depletion

two characteristics of tribal societies

Small, dispersed population

Mobile population

Possible seasonal migration

Three characteristics of foragers

Foraging groups

Food sharing

Group ownership of resources

Few possessions

No permanent, full-time political leaders

Absence or low incidence of warfare

High likelihood of infanticide (especially female)

Describe what group?

What can be done to keep the poor from rebelling and taking resources from the rich

Basic problem of state societies

age and sex

Tribal societies classified their occupational specialization based on

adminstratiors, law enforcers, etc. Often there are many other types of occupation

State societies classified their occupational specialization based on

State Societies

Non food producing class

state societies

•U.S., France, Thailand, ancient Rome, the Aztecs in Mexico prior to conquest are examples of?

(1) describing human activities and beliefs in different places and times

(2) trying to explain why human beliefs and activities differ from place to place and time to time

The essence of an anthropological way of looking at things is

1700s and especially 1800s

geologists and other scientists gradually became aware that human beings had existed for a long time during what time era?

•Describing human physical types, customs, and languages in societies remote from Europe (and later U.S.) in space and/or time

•Explaining reasons for similarities and differences in physical types, customs, and languages

goals of anthropologists in the nineteenth century

description and explanation of human similarities and differences

Goal of anthropological research

Ethnography (activity)

the process of joining a culture as much as possible and recording observstions

Administer laws

Collect taxes

Organize armies

Issue money

Common Activities of Centralized government

Stratification

Social classes (rich and poor)– some people have more access to natural resources, food and shelter than others

status, power, material possessions allocated by age, sex, and marital status, but not by social class

What did and did not hold value in the social stratification of tribal societies

Chiefdoms

Settled, agricultural, 100's-1000's of people per village. Ranked society

African Kingdoms, Mississippian Culture, Easter Island

Empire

Expansion via warfare/trade, unstable (lasting less than 200-500 years)

USSR, US, Japan, Aztecs, Inca

The Native Point of view

Malinowski argued this to be the overall aim of data collection

Hunting and Gathering Societies ("foraging societies

Exploit many resources lightly rather than heavily depend on a few; Hunt game; Gather plant resources; Low population density; Impermanent settlements; Own few possessions; Egalitarian in terms of possessions and gender roles- little class division; A lot of leisure time

Entry into the society

Methods

Collecting Data

Ethics

Components of Fieldwork

Horticulture

Gardening or substance farming

Agriculture

Food production on a larger scale with surplus that can be stored for extended periods, traded, or sold.

Emic

insiders view when engaging in fieldwork

Cultural relativism

the principle that an individual human's beliefs and activities should be understood in terms of his or her own culture

Transportations improvements and desire for wealth

1600-1900 led Europeans to explore, conquer, and settle large parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin America

goals of anthropological research

description and explanation of human similarities and differences – remains the same

Biological anthropology

Linguistic anthropology

Archaeology

Cultural anthropology

Four sub fields of anthropology

Ethnocentrism

Idea that our way of doing things is superior compared to others

the process of learning the tendency to see one's own culture as "right" "rational" or "natural"

Lewis Henry Morgan

Classified evolution of culture into 3 stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilization (current stage of Western cultures)

Assumes unilineal evolution- In the end all cultures will look the same when developed

Theory based on teleology- Development is planned toward single goal; divine int.

passed these beliefs to tylor and Engals

Physical or biological anthropology

field that studies evolution and biology of humans as a species

Archaeology

field that studies past human culture through material and literary remains

Cultural Anthropology

field that studies many different aspects of modern human culture

Linguistic Anthropology

field that studies relationship between language and culture

Cultural Relativism

One accepts there own culture as normal.

etic

outside/scientific observer while studying fiedwork

Unilineal Evolution

"primitive--->"civilized"
all headed in the same direction

Frans Boas

the founder of American anthropology
historical particularism: culture are the products of particular historical situations and contexts
cultural relativism
EMIC v ETIC

Bronislaw Malinowski

-British anthropology
-polish
-started participant observation fieldwork
Structural functionalism

structural functionalism

how do cultural practices function
Malinowski lived with his subjects (inside)

Margret Mead

Feminist anthropology- how gender relations are constructed in society and how those relations subsequently shape the society.
culture and personality
"coming of age in somoa"

E.B. Tylor (1871)

did not do fieldwork but rather, "armchair anthropology"

Developed theory of social evolution called unilineal evolution

3 stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilization

Whites most civilized

Enthocentric

Claude Levi-Strauss

Structuralism
notion of culture as a language
not the meaning itself but the relationship it has with other elements
ex)crocodile totem pole, look at the relationship the animal has with other elements not just the symbol of the croc.

armchair anthropologist

person who has book knowledge but has never had practical experience. He/She might know the theory but has never tried it out by him/herself.

Cultural Anthropology

study of customary patterns in human behavior, thought, and feelings

Holistic Perspective

A fundamental principle of anthropology: that the various parts of human culture and biology must be viewed in the broadest possible context in order to understand their interconnections and interdependance.

Ethnography (written)

A detailed description of a specific culture primarily based on field work.

Ethnology

The study and analysis of different cultures from a comparative or historical point of view, utilizing ethnological accounts and developing anthropological theories to help explain why certain differences/similarities occur among groups.

society

Group of people who share a specific culture

characteristics: location, dependent on each other, share common culture.

Bands

Nomadic, kin groups. b/w 5-50 people

Paleolithic cultures

Tribes

Sedentary or seminomadic, HG, pastoral lineage kin groups. b/w 100-1000

Examples of tribes Early Neolithic farmers

Sedentization

Transition from nomadic to permanentyear round settlemetn

Population Density

agriculture standing stock and standing crop) is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume

Pristine State

Developed indipendently of one another

Secondary States

Developed in response to Pristine States

•No social classes •No centralized government •Small population •Few communities •Little occupational specialization

5 qualities of tribes

Egalitarian

A classless society

the more egalitarian relations are between men and women

Among foragers, the greater the importance of plant food meant...

Mobility

Limited economic value of children

things that foragers did think was important and regulated

No restrictions on individual access to material needed to make tools

Land boundaries are fluid

do not condemn theft much

Property among foragers

!Kung

Compared to many in theard world countries. This group

•Have a reasonable good diet •Have a reasonably long life expectancy

60-80 Percent of diet by calories comes from gathering

!king diet consisted of

Very little rainfall – 6-9 inches per year

People constantly on the move

Rarely more than 2-3 days supply of food at a camp

People ate game, fruits and nuts (especially mogongo nut), berries, roots, bulbs

four characteristics of the !kung

Kalahari desert in Botswana and South Africa (in southern part of Africa) .

Because they overturned many previous ideas about foragers

Where do the !kung live? and why are they important?

They work hard to get their food

The most commmon mistake made about foragers

Kinship

not the same as biological relationship. but a term that defines how people are connected and how they treat eachother

Age and sex

Division of labor for foragers was by

behavior formerly harmful becomes less harmful or even harmless

Morality often changes as...

Did not thank people because it would imply that the person was doing something unordinary

Biggest insult to foragers

Post-partum sexual taboos

Lengthy nursing periods leads to amenorrhea

Infanticide – especially female infanticide

Mathods of pupulation regulation among foragers

because until 10,000-12,000 years ago all human beings were foragers

Why is it necessary to learn about foragers?

Between 11,000 and 9,000 years ago (some debate)

When did domestication of plants and animals first occur

Fallow

Land that is not used for a number of years

Secondary growth

second wave of growth on a fallow

Agroforestry

the concept that land is always used. Even when it no longer produces plants. Could grow trees to used for wood

Possibilism

The physical environment limits food getting methods, but does not determine food getting methods

Foragers work less to get food... but use more energy

Why are foragers more complex than industrial intensive agriculture

Kung

Pygmies in Congo

Australian aborigines

North American Indians

List four forager societies

the more energy (both human and nonhuman) that a society spends on food-getting, the more complex it is

What Classifies a society as complex?

Conflicts between haves and have-nots •Resource depletion or scarcity

•Almost all contemporary world problems have to do with either ...

No division of rich and poor

Little resource depletion

two characteristics of tribal societies

Small, dispersed population

Mobile population

Possible seasonal migration

Three characteristics of foragers

Foraging groups

Food sharing

Group ownership of resources

Few possessions

No permanent, full-time political leaders

Absence or low incidence of warfare

High likelihood of infanticide (especially female)

Describe what group?

What can be done to keep the poor from rebelling and taking resources from the rich

Basic problem of state societies

age and sex

Tribal societies classified their occupational specialization based on

adminstratiors, law enforcers, etc. Often there are many other types of occupation

State societies classified their occupational specialization based on

State Societies

Non food producing class

state societies

•U.S., France, Thailand, ancient Rome, the Aztecs in Mexico prior to conquest are examples of?

(1) describing human activities and beliefs in different places and times

(2) trying to explain why human beliefs and activities differ from place to place and time to time

The essence of an anthropological way of looking at things is

1700s and especially 1800s

geologists and other scientists gradually became aware that human beings had existed for a long time during what time era?

•Describing human physical types, customs, and languages in societies remote from Europe (and later U.S.) in space and/or time

•Explaining reasons for similarities and differences in physical types, customs, and languages

goals of anthropologists in the nineteenth century

description and explanation of human similarities and differences

Goal of anthropological research

Ethnography (activity)

Joining culture as much as possible and recording feildwork

Administer laws

Collect taxes

Organize armies

Issue money

Common Activities of Centralized government

Stratification

Social classes (rich and poor)– some people have more access to natural resources, food and shelter than others

status, power, material possessions allocated by age, sex, and marital status, but not by social class

What did and did not hold value in the social stratification of tribal societies

Chiefdoms

Settled, agricultural, 100's-1000's of people per village. Ranked society

African Kingdoms, Mississippian Culture, Easter Island

States

Agricultural, market/money concept, taxation, rapid population growth

Egypt, Harrapan, Sumerians, Maya

Empire

Expansion via warfare/trade, unstable (lasting less than 200-500 years)

USSR, US, Japan, Aztecs, Inca

The Native Point of view

Malinowski argued this to be the overall aim of data collection

Hunting and Gathering Societies ("foraging societies

Exploit many resources lightly rather than heavily depend on a few; Hunt game; Gather plant resources; Low population density; Impermanent settlements; Own few possessions; Egalitarian in terms of possessions and gender roles- little class division; A lot of leisure time

Entry into the society

Methods

Collecting Data

Ethics

Components of Fieldwork

Horticulture

Gardening or substance farming

Agriculture

Food production on a larger scale with surplus that can be stored for extended periods, traded, or sold.

Emic

insiders view when engaging in fieldwork

Cultural relativism

the principle that an individual human's beliefs and activities should be understood in terms of his or her own culture

Transportations improvements and desire for wealth

1600-1900 led Europeans to explore, conquer, and settle large parts of Africa, Asia, and Latin America

goals of anthropological research

description and explanation of human similarities and differences – remains the same

Biological anthropology

Linguistic anthropology

Archaeology

Cultural anthropology

Four sub fields of anthropology

Ethnocentrism

Idea that our way of doing things is superior compared to others

the process of learning the tendency to see one's own culture as "right" "rational" or "natural"

Lewis Henry Morgan

Classified evolution of culture into 3 stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilization (current stage of Western cultures)

Assumes unilineal evolution- In the end all cultures will look the same when developed

Theory based on teleology- Development is planned toward single goal; divine int.

passed these beliefs to tylor and Engals

Physical or biological anthropology

field that studies evolution and biology of humans as a species

Archaeology

field that studies past human culture through material and literary remains

Cultural Anthropology

field that studies many different aspects of modern human culture

Linguistic Anthropology

field that studies relationship between language and culture

Cultural Relativism

One accepts there own culture as normal.

etic

outside/scientific observer while studying fiedwork

Unilineal Evolution

"primitive--->"civilized"
all headed in the same direction

Frans Boas

the founder of American anthropology
historical particularism: culture are the products of particular historical situations and contexts
cultural relativism
EMIC v ETIC

Bronislaw Malinowski

-British anthropology
-polish
-started participant observation fieldwork
Structural functionalism

structural functionalism

how do cultural practices function
Malinowski lived with his subjects (inside)

Margret Mead

Feminist anthropology- how gender relations are constructed in society and how those relations subsequently shape the society.
culture and personality
"coming of age in somoa"

E.B. Tylor (1871)

did not do fieldwork but rather, "armchair anthropology"

Developed theory of social evolution called unilineal evolution

3 stages: savagery, barbarism, and civilization

Whites most civilized

Enthocentric

Claude Levi-Strauss

Structuralism
notion of culture as a language
not the meaning itself but the relationship it has with other elements
ex)crocodile totem pole, look at the relationship the animal has with other elements not just the symbol of the croc.

armchair anthropologist

person who has book knowledge but has never had practical experience. He/She might know the theory but has never tried it out by him/herself.

Cultural Anthropology

study of customary patterns in human behavior, thought, and feelings

Holistic Perspective

A fundamental principle of anthropology: that the various parts of human culture and biology must be viewed in the broadest possible context in order to understand their interconnections and interdependance.

Ethnography (written)

A detailed description of a specific culture primarily based on field work.

Ethnology

The study and analysis of different cultures from a comparative or historical point of view, utilizing ethnological accounts and developing anthropological theories to help explain why certain differences/similarities occur among groups.

society

Group of people who share a specific culture

characteristics: location, dependent on each other, share common culture.

Bands

Nomadic, kin groups. b/w 5-50 people

Paleolithic cultures

Tribes

Sedentary or seminomadic, HG, pastoral lineage kin groups. b/w 100-1000

Examples of tribes Early Neolithic farmers

Sedentization

Transition from nomadic to permanentyear round settlemetn

Population Density

agriculture standing stock and standing crop) is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume

Pristine State

Developed indipendently of one another

Secondary States

Developed in response to Pristine States

•No social classes •No centralized government •Small population •Few communities •Little occupational specialization

5 qualities of tribes

Egalitarian

A classless society

the more egalitarian relations are between men and women

Among foragers, the greater the importance of plant food meant...

Mobility

Limited economic value of children

things that foragers did think was important and regulated

No restrictions on individual access to material needed to make tools

Land boundaries are fluid

do not condemn theft much

Property among foragers

!Kung

Compared to many in theard world countries. This group

•Have a reasonable good diet •Have a reasonably long life expectancy

60-80 Percent of diet by calories comes from gathering

!king diet consisted of

Very little rainfall – 6-9 inches per year

People constantly on the move

Rarely more than 2-3 days supply of food at a camp

People ate game, fruits and nuts (especially mogongo nut), berries, roots, bulbs

four characteristics of the !kung

Kalahari desert in Botswana and South Africa (in southern part of Africa) .

Because they overturned many previous ideas about foragers

Where do the !kung live? and why are they important?

They work hard to get their food

The most commmon mistake made about foragers

•Agricultural intensification

•Land scarcity

•Desire to take land from neighbors

•Desirability of irrigation

Conssequences of pupolation growth in river valleys

•Private property

•Beginnings of stratification

•Beginnings of specialization

consequences of land scarcity

Reciprocity

Redistribution

Market Exchange

Three different Methods of exchange

Reciprocity

Method of exchange especially important among foragers

Market Exchange

Method of exchange especially important among agriculturalists

Redistribution

method of exchange especially important among non-state agriculturalists

reciprocity and redistribution

Methods of exchange predominately important in contemporary industrial states

Redistribution

•Needed because of local disasters in agricultural societies

• leaders needed to spread food from places with abundance to places with scarcity

•Temptation for redistributors to give back less than they collect

Warfare and irrigation

two common theoriesfor origins of states

• attack neighbors for land

•Armies need food allow class of rulers

•Thus occupational specialization

Warfare and state formation

They are secondary states

All states throught out histoy have one common characteristic

•Highly centralized bureaucracies

•Rulers who claimed descent from gods

•Elaborate censuses

•Monumental architecture

Four feartures of irrigation empires

•Semi-arid plains around river plains – control of water very important

Geography pf irrigation empires

states in Europe depended solely on rainfall agriculture and had less centralized governments and smaller bureaucracies

How did New world secondary states differ from those in europe

Green revolution

A significant increase in agricultural productivity resulting from the introduction of high-yield varieties of grains

Karl wittfogels theory of irrigation empires

Irrigation can support denser populations

Developing irrigation systems is complex, requiring large labor forces

Labor force must be fed

Bureaucracy developed to handle taxes, management of workers, maintenance of systems, etc.

neocaloric revolution

vast increase in nonhuman energy devoted to food production (crops & livestock) in form of fertilizers

Anthropology

Anthropology 113 with Chibnik at University of Iowa

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