exam 1

Psychology 310 with Mayhew at Rutgers University - New Brunswick/Piscataway

About this deck

By: max bobinski
Textbook:

Phantoms in the Brain: Probing the Mysteries of the Human Mind

Principles of Neuropsychology
Created: 2011-10-08
Size: 145 flashcards
Views: 338

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Trephination

ancient procedure used for surgical and mystical reasons (ancient peru)

relieves pressure in brain injuries, also used to drain bleeding

Brain Hypothesis

Origin of behavior is in the brain

Hippocrates and Galen

Cardiac Hypothesis

Origin of behavior is in the heart, because blood flows through there

Aristotle

Galen

Thought the brain pumped fluid to the nerves, believed the soul to reside in the frontal lobes.

Behavior came from the humors (black and yellow bile, blood, mucus)

Studied brain anatomy in gladiator patients.

Andreas Vesalus

Improved upon Galen's anatomy of the brain.

First to do surgery with an audience.

Stole bodies of criminals to dissect, the church wouldn't allow dissections.

Rene Decartes

Dualism - the mind and body are separate.

The mind is immaterial.

He did however believe that the brain controls behavior.

Phrenology

The idea that if an area in the brain is enlarged, so is that related area of the skull.

Localization of Function

Franz Gall and Johann Spurzheim

Different areas of the brain control different things

Equipotentiality

Pierre Florens

- mental abilities depend on the brain functioning as a whole

- effects of brain injury depend on size not location

- other areas of the brain can take over and do the function of the missing piece if damage is small (tested on animals)

Hierarchy of Function

John Hughlings-Jackson

- the nervous system is a hierarchy

- behavior results from interactions in all areas of the brain

Central Nervous System consists of...

Brain

Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System

- Cranial and Spinal Nerves

- Interactions between body and environment

Autonomic Nervous System

- Regulates body's internal environment

-Sympathetic (energy) and parasympathetic (relaxation) nervous systems

Afferent Fibers

Signals toward the brain from outside environment

Efferent Fibers

Signals from the CNS to a place of interest (ex: muscles)

Planes of the Brain

Coronal (y axis)

Saggital (z axis)

Horizontal (x axis)

The purpose of neurons is...

to process information

Neuron Structure

Cell Body (with nucleus) - Gray Matter

Dendrites

Axon

Terminal Synaptic Button (presynaptic terminal)

How many neurons are in the brain?

100 billion, each has 10,000 connections to other neurons

Sensory Neuron

Takes information in from outside (senses)

Afferent Fibers

Motor Neuron

Muscle contractions and gland activity

Efferent Fibers

Interneurons

short axons, connect neurons; integrate neural activity within a specific brain region

Neuron Types

Unipolar - no dendrites attached to the body

Bipolar - 2 processes

Most neurons however are multipolar

Myelin Sheath

Fatty-type covering the axons, this increases the speed of axonal transmission

The purpose of glial cells is to...

support neurons by bringing them nutrients

The most abundant cell in the body is

Glial cells (10x more than neurons)

Microglia

Small cells in the CNS whose purpose is to respond to tissue damage/destruction and metabolize tissue debris

Macroglia

Astrocytes: respond to brain injury by swelling to fill a damaged space

Oligodendrocytes: mylinate axons in the CNS (attach to axons at many parts, unlike schwann cells)

Schwann cells: Mylenate axons in the PNS

White Matter

Made of mostly axons

Found in the inner cortex and on the outside of the spinal cord

Gray Matter

Mostly cell bodies

Found along the outer cortex and inside the spinal cord

Tracts, pathways and fibers

a large collection of neurons in the CNS (when in PNS - called nerves)

Multiple Sclerosis

A demyelinating disease that destroys myelin on axons (in CNS)

- information no longer flows properly

What is the average age onset in MS? its incidence rate?

30 years old; 1 in 2000

Cause of MS, cause of symptoms, and treatment

Believed to be an autoimmune disease, which might have environmental ties

Symptoms are caused by sclerotic plaques, which can reside in various places, varying the symptoms. There is no cure or effective treatment.

Neurogenesis

Birth of Neurons; happens the most in pre-natal development in the CNS

Where does neurogenesis occur in adults?

In the hippocampus and in the sub-ventricular zone (is a result of learning and exercise)

Migration

Occurs after the proliferation of a group of neurons, the cells move to their predetermined location; they then settle and develop characteristics needed in that particular brain region

Disorders in Migration

- Spina Bifida

- Anencephaly

- Malformations in the subcortical structures (agyria and lissencephaly) which cause severe retardation, seizures, and reduced muscle tone, not many survive longer than 2 years

Spina Bifida

A disorder in migration where the neural cells fail to differentiate and the spinal cord does not close at the posterior neuropores

Anencephaly

A disorder in migration where the neural cells fail to differentiate and the top of the spinal cord does not close properly, the brain is a vascular mass, resulting in death

Synaptogenesis

The growth of the axons and dendrites from synapses

- begins in the 2nd trimester and continues into late adolescence (in broca's area and the prefrontal cortex) Most synaptogenesis is complete by ages 2-4

Myelination

Oligodendrocytes encircle the axons

Begins in the spinal cord after birth, and continues into adolescence.

Synaptic Pruning

Elimination of excessive neuronal development "sculpting the brain"

- begins postnatal, continues into adulthood

The embryonic plate develops into the...

1) ectoderm

2) mesoderm

3) entoderm

The ectoderm becomes...

Nervous tissue and the epidermis

When do the anterior and posterior neuro-pores close?

day 26 of gestation

(anterior creates the brain, posterior creates the spinal cord)

Name the brain areas bottom to top

Myelencephalon

Metencephalon

Mesencephalon

Diencephalon

Telencephalon

What is contained in the myelencephalon?

The medulla oblongata and 4th ventricle

What is contained in the metencephalon?

Cerebellum, pons, 4th ventricle

What is contained in the mesencephalon? what is another name for this area?

Contains the cerebral aqueduct, tectum and tegmentum

aka - midbrain

What is contained in the diencephalon?

Thalamus, Hypothalamus, pineal body, 3rd ventricle

What is contained in the telencephalon?

neocortex, basal ganglia, limbic system, olfactory bulb, lateral ventricles

Meninges

Protective layer of the CNS

Dura Mater

Arachnoid (contains blood vessels, overlies subarachnoid space)

Pia Mater

Folding the dura...

divides the hemispheres and separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum

Subarachnoid space is filled with

cerebro spinal fluid

Where are the 4 ventricles located?

2 in the forebrain (lateral - in telencephalon; and third ventricle - in diencephalon)

1 in the midbrain (cerebral aqueduct)

1 in the hindbrain (4th ventricle - in metencephalon)

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) is located where?

CSF is present in all 4 ventricles and is produced in the choroid plexus in the lateral and 4th ventricles

How much CSF is produced daily?

~450 ml

Function of CSF

1) acts as a buffer for the brain and spinal cord

2) disposes of waste in the brain

What artery supplies what lobe?

Frontal - middle and anterior cerebral artery

Temporal - middle and posterior CA

Parietal - middle and anterior CA

Occipital - posterior CA

Blood-Brain Barrier

Protects neurons from pathogens transported by blood

Astrocytes (BBB)

hold in place the tightly joined lining of the BBB with its "feet"

Area Postrema

just outside the BBB

does not have tight junctions, allowing for a free exchange of molecules between blood and brain tissue

The spinal cord is housed...

in the spinal column

its protected by CSF, fat, and veins

How many spinal cord segments are there?

31, and 31 spinal nerves

Dermatomes

Body segments that correspond to spinal nerves (8 cervical, 12 thorasic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacrial, 1 coxical)

Cauda Equina

Lower end of the spinal column, consists of nerve roots (where lumbar puncture is done)

Lumbar puncture

taking CSF out for diagnosis, done between the 2rd and 4th or 4th and 5th vertebrae so there is no risk of paralysis

CSF can show (diagnosis)

hemorrhage, cell count, glucose levels, protein count, meningitis, viral infections, tumors, MS

Dorsal Root Ganglion

Nodule on afferent spinal nerves, contains neurons

Paraplegic

Loss of control of lower limbs

Quadriplegic

Loss of all limb control

Top 3 spinal cord injuries

Work accidents, motor vehicle accidents, sports

Where are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves located?

Parasympathetic - cranio-sacral regions (very top and bottom)

Sympathetic - thoratic-lumbar regions (middle)

Medulla

location: just above spinal cord in the mylencephalon

is responsible for reflexes; tracts cross over here as well (decussation)

Cranial Nerves

Nerves in the head and neck - I-XII

Olfactory - smell (cerebral cortex)

Optic - vision (thalamus)

Oculomotor - eye movements/pupil constriction (midbrain)

Trochlear - eye movement (midbrain)

Trigeminal - skin sensation on face, jaws (pons)

Abducens - eye movement (pons)

Facial - taste, facial expression (pons)

Statoacoustic - hearing (pontomedulliary jnct.)

Glossopharyngeal - taste, swallowing (medulla)

Vagus - neck and throat (medulla)

Accessory - neck and shoulder (medulla)

Hypoglossal - tounge (medulla)

Pons

located in the metencephalon
increases arousal and readiness in other parts of the brain

Cerebellum

located behind the pons in the metencephalon
3 parts
1) Flocculonodular lobe - regulates balance and eye movement
2) Spinocerebellum - regulates body and limb movement
3) Cerebrocerebellum - plan movements/evaluate sensory information

Mesencephalon and its parts (midbrain)

Tectum - root of midbrain, superior and inferior colliculus - the roots for sensory information
Tegmentum - middle of midbrain
Substantia Nigra - Gives rise to the dopamine containing pathway, death of cells here causes Parkinsons

Where does the reticular formation extend to/from?

From the mesencephalon to the mylencephalon

Where do the thalamus and hypothalamus reside? What is the purpose of the Thalamus?

In the diencephalon
Thalamus is the sensory relay station

Limbic System

Telencephalon
Controls motivation, emotion, drives and aggression

Hypothalamus

Conveys messages to the pituitary gland to trigger the release of hormones
Controls behaviors like eating, drinking, sex drive

Pituitary Gland

Hormone production

Basal Ganglia

Telencephalon
- motor movement, automatic action, memory, emotional expression
3 structures (caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) connect to the cortex via the thalamus, the reticular formation and the midbrain

Sulci

Small grooves in the cerebral cortex

Gyri

Bulges in the cerebral cortex

Longitudinal Fissure

Groove separating the hemispheres

Lateral/Sylvian Fissure

Groove separating the frontal/parietal from the temporal lobe

Central Fissure

Groove separating the frontal and parietal lobes

Occipital Lobe

Visual Perception

Parietal Lobe

Location of objects and sound in space
contains the postcentral gyrus (primary somatosensory cortex) which controls touch, joint and muscle movements

Temporal Lobe

Auditory information, language processing

Frontal Lobe

1) Precentral gyrus - aka primary motor cortex - controls motor action
2) Prefrontal Cortex - Sensory information, thinking/planning, memory, impulse control

Main Research Strategies (for brain function)

1) examine effects of brain damage
2) Record brain activity during behavior
3) examine the after effects of stimulating a particular area of the brain

Inflammation

A normal response to harmful stimuli
- Immune cells produce chemical messengers that recruit more cells, and change conditions

Signs of inflammation

Pain (dolor)
Vasodilation - redness (rubor)
Loss of function (functiolaesa)
Tissue Swelling (tumor)
Fluid Build up (edema)

TBI

Traumatic Brain Injury

Main Causes of TBI

Falls, vehicle accident, assault, sports
Alcohol is prevalent 1/3 of the time

Open TBI

an object penetrates the skull and injures the brain

Closed TBI

Injury inside the skull with no penetration

Contra Coup Effect (closed TBI)

coup is damage at the site of a blow, contra coup is damage done on the opposite side from when the brain rears back and hits the opposite side of the skull

Diffuse Axonal Injury (closed TBI)

White matter (axons) scrape together or against gray matter, ruining the axon

Edema (closed TBI)

brain swelling, puts pressure on the skull

Hematoma (closed TBI)

accumulation of blood in the brain/skull

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (closed TBI)

Axonal Injury
Degenerative disease, most common in athletes, leads to dementia

Tumor

Morbid enlargement or new growth of tissue which is uncontrolled and progressive

Malignant Tumor

Progressive

Benign Tumor

Cell growth is arrested (but still causes neurological problems)

Tissue that can be affected by tumors

Glial (glioblastroma Multiforme) - 40-50%
Meninges (Meningioma) - benign tumors in arachnoid layer - 15%
Myelin (Acoustic Neuroma)
Blood Vessels

Metastasized Tumor

Start in one area, then move to the brain
Most common - breast, lung, skin cancers
- 40% of all tumors

Ischemia vs Infarction

Ischemia - Not enough blood reaches the tissues
Infarction - when blood loss goes on for too long, cells die

Anoxia vs Hypoxia

Anoxia - no oxygen recieved by cells resulting in death
Hypoxia - cells do not die but become strained and stressed

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)

Syndromes caused by blockage in blood supply or bleeding in brain

CVA causes...

stroke (loss in blood supply leading to infarction)
blockade of artery (clot, embolus)

Symptoms of CVA

loss of consciousness, sensation and voluntary movement

Temporary Ischemic Attack (TIA)

anterior circulation - (frontal, parietal and temporal) causes clumsiness, weak limbs and aphasia
posterior circulation - (temporal and occipital) causes dizziness, double vision, weak extremities

Aneurysm

Artery with weak walls, which bulge out and burst

Whats the difference between an infection and inflammation?

Inflammation is a response to a microbial pathogen, while an infection is caused by exogenous pathogens (viruses, bacteria, fungi)

Meningitis

Inflammation in meninges, cause by bacteria (fungal is the most serious)

Herpes Virus

Dormant in system, upon activation it leaves cells and induces immune response

Herpes Encephalitis

Affects the medial temporal lobe (and limbic system) causing hallucinations, seizures and dementia

Neurotoxin

a toxin that specifically works on nerve cells
ex) mercury, lead, drugs of abuse

Histology

the determination of the structure and morphology of tissue (done postmortem)

Types of stains

Golgi - show dead cells (black)
Nissl - show cell bodies (purple)
Myelin - show myelin and axonal projections
Horseradish Peroxidase - stains neuronal pathways

Cranial X-ray

Photo taken with electromagnetic radiation
- gives only a 2-d image, poor resolution
Shows: tumors, skull fractures, hemorrhage

Angiography

Visualizes the cerebral vasulature
- a catheter is inserted close to the site of arterial supply in that brain area being looked at, and a contrasting dye is injected
- done for diagnosis only; aneurysms, tumors, vascular shifting

Computer Axial Tomography (CAT)

a series of x-rays that rotate to give a 3-d image

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Applies powerful magnets to the brain
Radiofrequency causes aligned axes to spin like a gyroscope, then termination of the radiofrequency
Produces a good resolution in real time

fMRI

use of subtraction: to ensure that a given task or stimulus is responsible for the activity detected
problem: patients must sit totally still, and some patients can not do this

DTI (diffusion tensor imaging)

allows to visualize directional fibers using water diffusion

PET (position-emission tomography)

injected radioactive chemicals produce a high resolution image

3 techniques for electrical recording

1) single cell - insert electrode into brain, neuron activity recorded
2) EEG - electroencephalograph - records brain waves (used in sleep studies)
3) FRP - event-related potential

EEG Patterns

Beta Rhythm - alert awake state
Alpha waves - calm and resting
Theta Waves - drowsiness (stage 1 sleep)
Delta Waves - Deep Sleep

What happens to EEG readings as you go into deeper sleep?

Frequency decreases while amplitude increases

What phenomena occur during stage 2 of sleep?

K complexes (high amplitude wave)
Sleep spindles (high frequency waves)

How is a coma different from deep sleep on an EEG?

Coma - does not show delta waves, coma waves are very slow, low frequency and low amplitude waves

What is different about REM sleep?

- rapid eye movements
- paralysis of limbs

How much REM sleep does the body get?

babies - 50%
adults - 25%
as you get older though you get less and less REM sleep

Sleep Apnea

Airway blocked, causing gasps for air
Obstruction sleep apnea - occurs in REM sleep when the airway collapses
treatment - continuous airway pressure mask

Narcolepsy

- Daytime Sleep attacks
- Cataplexy - REM paralysis when awake
- sleep paralysis (upon falling asleep or waking up)
- hallucinations

Epilepsy

Symptom - seizures generated by brain dysfunction
Incidence rate - 1% of population
Grand Mal - loss of consciousness and equilibrium, tonic-clonic convulsions
Petit Mal - disruption of consciousness (absence seizure)

Partial Seizure

Occurs in Part of the brain

Generalized seizure

Involves the entire brain

Secondary Generalized Seizure

Starts in one place and moves elsewhere: "jacksonian march"

Simple vs Complex seizures

Simple- consciousness is preserved
Complex- loss of consciousness