Psych 111 Schreier Exam 2

Learning

Any relative permanent change in behavior that occurs because of experience

Conditioning

A kind of learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and responses

Classical Conditioning

The organism learns to associate two stimuli

One produces a response that originally was only produced by the other

Ex. Pavlov's dogs (dog/bell/salivation)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

Elicits unconditioned response (food)

Unconditioned Response (UR)

Response which is automatically produces (salivate)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Originally neutral stimulus that elicits a behavior after being paired with a US (bell)

Conditioned Response (CR)

Response elicited by the conditioned stimulus (salivate to bell)

Extinction

Repeat the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus over time and the conditioned response will disappear

Spontaneous Recovery

After a response has been extinguished, it may spontaneously reappear after the passage of time with exposure to the conditioned stimulus

Higher Order Conditioning

Pairing a neutral stimulus with the conditioned stimulus will create another conditioned stimulus, although a weaker conditioned response. More likely to show extinction

Ex. Food with bell, bell with light

Stimulus Generalization

After a stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus for some response, other similar stimuli may produce the same reaction

Stimulus Discrimination

One learns to realize the differences between similar stimuli

Anticipatory Nausea and Vomiting

Classically conditioned response:

Chemotherapy (UCS)

Nausea (UCR)

Treatment room/needles (CS)

Nausea in response to room (CR)

ANV Patients:

Don't respond well to anti-nausea drugs

Responsive to some behavioral treatments

Garcia Effect

Taste aversions seem to be particularly sensitive to learning. May be evolutionarily determined

Operant Conditioning/Instrumental Learning

Behavior is dependent on its consequence

Ex. Thorndike cat studies

Law of Effect

Satisfying results strengthens/increases a behavior

B.F. Skinner

All behavior is explained by looking outside the individual. People (and animals) tend to repeat behaviors which have positive consequences; decrease behaviors which have negative consequences

Three Types of Consequences

Neutral: not more or less likely to see behavior patterns change

Reinforcement: anything which will make a response more likely to occur

Punishment: anything which will make a response less likely to occur

Primary Reinforcers

Satisfy biological needs (people will do a lot of things for food, water, and sex)

Secondary Reinforcers

Satisfy through association with primary reinforcers (money, praise, good grades...you can then buy food, sex, and water)

Punishments

Presentation or removal of a stimulus decreases the likelihood of a response

Reinforcement or punishment which occurs immediately after a behavior has the strongest effect

Positive Punishment

Something unpleasant occurs to decrease a behavior (spanked, mouth washed out with soap)

Negative Punishment

Something pleasant is removed to decrease a behavior (no TV, no dessert...)

Escape Learning

Acquiring a response that decreases or ends an aversive stimulation

Avoidance Learning

Acquiring a response that prevents some aversive stimuli from occurring

Learning Schedules

Continuous: reward/punishment occurs each time a behavior occurs

Intermittent/Partial: reward/punishment occurs when a response occurs only some of the time

Ratio Learning Schedules

Deliver reinforcement after a certain fixed number of responses

Fixed Ratio: reinforcement after a fixed number of responses

Variable Ratio: reinforcement after some average number of responses

Interval Schedules

Reinforcement after a certain amount of time has passed and the desired behavior has occurred

Fixed Interval: reinforcement occurs after a fixed amount of time has passed since the reinforcer (5 minutes)

Variable Interval: reinforcement occurs if a variable amount of time has passed since the previous reinforcer (on the avg. 5 minutes, could be 3 or 7 times)

Intermittent Reinforcement

For a response to persist, it should be reinforced intermittently, making the response more difficult to extinguish

Shaping

Reinforcing behavioral tendencies in a desired direction. Uses successive approximation--reinforce responses that are increasingly similar to the desired behavior

Social Cognitive Theories of Learning

Observational Learning

Lessons from Lassie Study (Sprafkin et. al.)

Observational Learning

Believe there is a higher level cognitive process to how we learn, impacts attitudes, beliefs and expectations

Children learn and then imitate behaviors (ex. television violence)

Bandura's Four Key Components of Observational Learning

Attention: be aware of another's behavior and consequences

Retention: have the capacity to store/retrieve what you have observed

Reproduction: behaviorally imitate what has been stored in memory

Motivation: determined by a belief that the behavior will bring about a desired response

Memory

The capacity to retain and retrieve information

Flashbulb Memories

Dramatic positive or negative memory

Memories for Traumatic Events

Traumatic memories are more vivid than ordinary events

Main aspects or trauma remembered

Can distort details

Accuracy fades over time

Cohort differences in flashbulb memories (recollections)

Ex. personal recollections of 9/11

How to Measure Memory

Recall: ability to retrieve information which has been learned earlier

Recognition: ability to identify previously encountered information

Relearning: effort is saved in having learned something before

Information Processing Model of Memory

Memory and mind are like a computer

Encoding (shallow): how to put information in, involves forming a memory code (entering date through a keyboard)

Storage (intermediate): involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time (saving data in a file or on a hard drive)

Retrieval (deep): involves recovering information from memory stores (calling up files/documents with necessary information)

Three Box Model of Memory

Sensory, short term, and long term memory

Sensory Memory

Retains for 1-2 seconds

Acts as a holding bin

~1/2 second in visual subsystem

~longer in auditory system

Systems decide if the sensation is worth processing

Short Term Memory

Holds limited amounts of information for up to 20-30 seconds

Houses our working memory

Pattern recognition: compares to information already in our long term memory, goes to long term memory, or decays/is lost

Long Term Memory

Longer storage for minutes to decades

Organized by semantic categories

Contents of Long Term Memory

Procedural: knowing "how" (riding your bike)

Declarative: knowing "what" (factual info/explicit memories)

Types of declarative memories:

Semantic: facts, rules, concepts (how much a nickel is worth)

Episodic: experiences, events, personal recollections (first kiss)

Prospective Memory

Remember to perform actions in the future

Retrospective Memory

Remember events from the past or previously learned information

Primary Effect

Memory of beginning pieces of list

Recency Effect

Memory of end pieces of the list

Frequency

Numerous mention increases memory

Distinctiveness

The more random the fact/statement, the more likely it will be retained

Chunking

Grouping things with similarities together

Reconstructed Memory

Making up a memory based off similarities of other memories

Maintenance Rehearsal

Retaining information in short term memory (repeating a phone number)

Elaborative Rehearsal

Know it, review, practice, give meanings

Visual Imagery

Create visual images to represent words/concepts to remember

Method of Loci

Match up existing visual images with concepts

Mnemonics

Systematic strategies for remembering information; memory tricks or useful tools to aid memory, ROY G BIV

Dual-Coding Theory

Memory is enhanced by using both semantic and visual codes since either can lead to recall

What is the word Dr. Shreier asked us to remember in class?

Liberty

Chase and Simon Research Experiment

When you take expert, intermediate, and novice chess players, expert knowledge helps memory of relevant but not irrelevant information

Eyewitness Testimony

People's tendency to fill in missing information

Errors are greater when the ethnicity of the subjects is different from the witness

Power of words can impact memories

Children and adults can report accurately as well as be influenced in their recall

Forgetting

Ineffective encoding: we don't "remember" it in the first place

Decay theories: memories fade with time

New memories for old: more recent versions are "saved"

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with old

Proactive Interference

Old information interferes with new

Motivated Forgetting

Painful memories blocked from consciousness (Freud)

Cue Dependent Forgetting

Forget because you haven't figured out what you need to help remember (retrieval cues)

Retrieval Cues

Context, mental and physical states, can all be retrieval cues, "back to the scene of the crime" concept

Amnesia

Memory deficits

Retrograde: deficit in recalling events that happened before the onset of the amnesia

Anterograde: deficit in learning after the onset of the disorder

Post-Traumatic Amnesia

Range of cognitive impairments including memory loss following an accident

Can be substantial, but often decreases to the level of events surrounding the accident

Childhood Amnesia

The inability to remember things from the first years of life

Dementia

A clinical condition in which the individual loses cognitive abilities and functioning to the degree in which it impedes normal activity and social relationships

Alzheimer's Disease

The most common form of dementia

Symptoms:

1. Loss of memory for recent events and familiar tasks

2. Changes in cognitive functioning ultimately leading to a change in personality

3. Loss of ability to perform most simple functions

Aphasia

Loss of ability to use language

Apraxia

Loss of ability to carry out coordinated body movement

Agnosia

Loss of ability to recognize familiar objects

Causes of Alzheimer's Disease

Formation of plaques or tangles in areas of the brain controlling memory or vital cognitive function

Diagnosis usually done by exclusion because there is no one specific indicator

Historically done through autopsy for characteristic tangles/plaques central to the disease

Intelligence

Combines verbal ability, problem solving skills, and the ability to adapt and learn from life's everyday experiences

Historically: intelligence was defined by how we "measured" it

Alfred Binet

Developed intelligence tests to identify slow learners

Mental Age: based on ability, not chronological

IQ Calculation

Alfred Binet came up with this formula:

IQ (intelligence quotient) = MA (mental age) / CA (chronological age) x 100

However, this formula was flawed. A child with a mental age of 6 and chronological age of 5 would have the same IQ as a child with a mental age of 12 and a chronological age of 10.

Wechsler Intelligence TestsQ

WPPSI: preschool

WISC: children

WAIS: adults

Results in a Verbal IQ, Performance IQ, and a Full Scale IQ score

100 is the mean, normal range is about 85-115

The Flynn Effect

James Flynn found that from one generation to the next, there have been steady gains in IQ scores cross culturally

Hypotheses: more time in school, better educated parents, better nutrition, broader exposure through media

Wechsler's View of Intelligence

The global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with his/her environment

WAIS-IV Revision

Took place in 2008 and now identifies several scale scores

Verbal Comprehension Scale

Perceptual Reasoning Scale

Working Memory Scale

Processing Speed Scale

Vocabulary Verbal Subtest

Breadth of concepts, idea and experiences; correlated with overall IQ (what is a diamond?...what does the word scorch mean?)

Information Verbal Subtest

Basic fund of information; culturally sensitive rules and roles (what does the stomach do?)

Comprehension Verbal Subtest

Awareness of socially appropriate behavior rules and roles (if you lose something of your friends, what do you do?)

Similarity Verbal Subtest

Verbal concept formation, level of abstraction (how are cats and animals similar?)

Arithmetic Verbal Subtest

Concentration/attention; mathematical ability **arithmetic is a verbal subtest** (story problems require that you have strong verbal ability; how many slices of pizza are left?)

Digit Span Verbal Subtest

Attention and rote memory (547321)

Picture Completion Performance Subtest

Visual organization and concentration

Block Design Performance Subtests

Perception and analysis of patterns

Digit Symbol Performance Subtest

Imitative behavior and learning capacity

Visual Puzzles Performance Subtest

Perceptual reasoning

Cancellation Performance Subtest

Processing speed

Figure Weights Performance Subtest

Perceptual reasoning

Rosenthal and Jacobson Study

Self-fulfilling prophecy: if we expect something to happen in a certain way, our expectancies will make it so

Study with teacher expectancy and student performance correlation

Results: for the entire school, the children for whom the teachers expected greater intellectual growth averaged significantly greater improvement than did the control children

Advantages to Studying Younger Children

Younger children are easier to change

Younger students have less developed reputations

Younger children may be more susceptible

Teachers of children in lower grades may differ from the teachers of older children

Culture Free Intelligence Tests

Stereotype Vulnerability: anxiety may impair test performance of true ability because of an implicit or explicit expectation of inadequacy based on stereotypes (Steele and Aronson)

**Difficult to design a truly culture free test**

Raven's Progressive Matrices

XXXXXXX A. XXX

XXXXXXX B. XYZ

XXXXXXX C. ABC

XXX X D. XOX

Mental Retardation/Intellectual Disability

A condition of limited mental ability, IQ of lower than 70 on a tradition test, difficulty adapting to everyday life; onset during the developmental period, before age 18

Draw a person: positive correlation with intelligence (tadpole person)

Conceptual Skills

Language and literacy, money, time and number concepts; self-drection

Early Signs of Developmental Delays in Preschool Children

Feder-Feitel (1997)

Language: pronunciation problems, slow vocabulary growth, lack of interest in story telling

Memory: trouble recognizing letters or numbers, difficulty remembering sequencing (days)

Attention: difficulty sitting still or sticking to a task

Motor Skills: problems with self care skills (button, combing hair) (clumsiness, reluctance to draw

Other functions: trouble learning left/right, difficulty categorizing, difficulty reading face/body language

Mild Retardation

IQ 50-70 (85%): can acquire academic skills to 6th grade level, fairly self-sufficient, can live independently with community skills in childhood and are able to live independently with community and social support

Moderate Retardation

IQ 35-50 (10%): can carry out work and self-care tasks with moderate supervision; typically acquire communication skills in childhood and are able to live and function successfully in the community is a supervised group home

Severe Retardation: IQ 20-35 (4%)

IQ 20-35 (4%): may master basic self-care skills and some communication with supervision

Profound Retardation

IQ<20 (1%): little or no speech; high level of structure and supervision required, often unresponsive to training

Causes of Retardation

Organic: over 100 single genetic traits can result in mental retardation

Environmental: teratogens -- fetal alcohol syndrome, poor nutrition, disease

Giftedness

Generally believed to be those with an IQ>130 (Upper 2-3% of the population)

Characteristics:

Precocious; master things earlier

Teachers may not identify them correctly

Acceleration not recommended (may be intellectually advanced but not psychologically or emotionally)

Gifted vs. Profoundly Gifted

May have exceptional potential in visual/performing arts, leadership traits, or empathy on top of the gifted intelligence

Terman's Study

Long term study of gifted individuals (longest running study - since 1921)

1500 youngsters with an average IQ of 150 (referred to as 'termites')

They were found to be above average in heigh, weight, strength, physical health emotional stability, and social satisfaction throughout adulthood

Winner's Differences on Gifted vs. Profoundly Gifted

Gifted individuals (IQ>130): most are socially successful, above average in psychological adjustment

Profoundly gifted (IQ>180): these children were more introverted and socially isolated

Spearman: Two Factor Theory of Intelligence

G factor or general abilities: comprehension or spatial skills, verbal abilities

S factor or specific abilities: numerical reasoning, rote memory skills

Cattell: Two Types of G Factor Intelligence

Fluid Intelligence: innate skills do not depend on the environment; more biologically based (declines as one ages)

Crystallized Intelligence: academic learning, ability to use information learned in problem solving; related to environment and experience

Sternberg's Three Facets of Intelligence

Practical Intelligence: dealing with problems encountered in every day life

Analytical Intelligence: abstract reasoning, good test taking skills

Created Intelligence: generate new ideas

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Logical Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalist

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Gardner)

Looking at whether a person can perform operations on things like numbers, predict relationships, arrive at abstract conclusions, and how good they are at problem solving

Linguistic Intelligence (Gardner)

Do people appreciate the pleasure and beauty of language, can they effectively explain things, appreciate literature, look at text and find special meaning/multiple meaning in texts

Musical Intelligence (Gardner)

Pitch and rhythm, emotional and musical expressiveness, one of the few with precocious skills to put pitch and tone together (methodically)

Spatial Intelligence (Gardner)

People able to orient themselves, take a map and learn the city, understand diagrams and how things fit together

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Gardner)

Fine motor and gross motor development, some are gifted in physical ability and can make the body move in incredibly significant ways

Fine motor skills: jewelers, craftsmen, having the ability to manipulate fine objects and tools

Gross motor skills: athletes

Interpersonal Intelligence (Gardner)

The go-to person when you have a problem, people who can notice distinctions in social situations, good at notice other peoples mistakes, limitations, emotions, temperate, strengths, opinions, etc.

Intrapersonal Intelligence (Gardner)

Access to your own feelings and understanding own limitations and strengths and ability to use them effectively

Naturalist Intelligence (Gardner)

Truly gifted in how they understand the biological world around them

Emotional Intelligence

Ability to motivate oneself and control impulses

Persist in the fact of frustration

Regulate moods to keep distress from overwhelming the ability to think

Emotional Intelligence Test

Testing 'EQ' - Goleman

Validity: does the test measure the construct for which it is designed to assess/measure (not really)

Reliability: measurement consistence, do we get consistent results with the same people overtime (yes but validity might be more important)

Language

System of symbols, sound meanings, and rules of combination that allow for communication among humans

Benjamin Whorf: Linguistic Relativity

One's language determines one's thought (language determines how we are culturally)

Structure of Language

Phonemes: smallest units of sounds which can be distinguished; change in sound can alter meaning (cat vs. bat...changing initial phonemes OR bit vs. bat...changing middle phonemes)

Morphemes: smallest units of meaning in language (phrases are made up of morphemes, aka words)

Semantics

The study of the meaning of words/combinations/sentences

Syntax

The structure of a language, underlying rules of order and function

Gleason Language Study

Langauge rules are generative

Overregularizations: grammatical rules incorrectly generalized to "exception" cases

Language Acquisition Device (Chomsky)

Humans possess an inborn language mechanism

Hard-wired to sort input from 20-80 phonemes (baby talk)

Lose by 12 months

Surface structure: particular words used

Deep structure: notion of nouns verbs, commands

*Chomsky believes languages differ only in surface structure*

Expressive Language

Productive

The ability to produce language

Receptive Language

The ability to comprehend, process and integrate the meaning of language

Children usually have a greater capacity for receptive speech (18 months until expressive language development catches up)

Stages of Language Development

Crying: hunger, pain, sadness, etc.

Cooing: vowel like noises

Babbling: consonant/vowel combinations (baba, dada, etc.)

First Words

Holophrases: simple words convey meanings ("cookie" = "I want a cookie")

Overextensions: take words and expand them beyond what they mean (dog = all hairy animals)

Telegraphic Speech: "content" word sentences

By age 6, children learn on average 15 words per day (eventually know 8,000-14,000 words)

Nonverbal Communication

Up to 80% of communication is nonverbal

Vocal intonation: stress, pitch, and volume

Body language: crossed arms, sitting up

Gestures

Physical distance

Facial expressions

Touch

Bilingualism

There are some questions about language acquisition, but it is often seen that children in bilingual household cumulate vocabulary equivalently for both

Most research does not show cognitive limitations

A second language is learned best when younger at a "sensitive period" for language development

Critical Periods in Language Development

Case study of Genie from "The Secret of the Wild Child"

There does appear to be some sensitive/critical period for language development skills

She knew a decent amount of words but she never got full syntax -- concluded with potential idea that if you don't learn proper syntax by a certain point in life, you won't ever learn it (this is only a hypothesis)

Learning Theory and Language

Language is based on modeling, imitation, exposure, and reinforcement

Flaws with this notion:

Children acquire language with ease, not broad variation

Adult speech is often sloppy; children acquire basic rules/structures anyways

Children's speech is not a mechanical play back of adult speech

Interactionist Theory of Language Development

Both biology and experience make important contributions to language development

Similar concepts and rates between deaf and hearing language development

Thought

An extension of perception and memory, metal representation are formed, recalled and manipulated

Concepts and Categorie of Thought

Objects are classified on the basis of their properties

Concepts: a mental representation of a category

Categorization: recognizing an object as a member of a group

Prototypes

We rate things based on their similarity to models or prototypes which represent the main characteristic of a group

Rosch Prototypes

Concepts are defined by a prototype or the most typical member of a "class"

Is a sparrow a bird?

Is a penguin a bird?

Is a bat a bird?

Reasoning

The process by which we generate and evaluate arguments

Algorithms

A methodical, step by step procedure for trying all possible alternatives to solve a problem

Inductive Reasoning

We reason from specific observations to general propositions

Deductive Reasoning

Draw conclusions from a set of assumptions; the conclusion is true if the premise is true

Syllogism

Form of deductive reasons, consists of two premises and a conclusion

EX.

Premise: All A are B

Premise: C is A

Therefore: C is B

Problem Solving

Transform one situation into another to meet a goal. Active efforts to achieve the goal

Problems vary from well-definied to ill defined

Greeno's Three Types of Problems

Inducing structure: relationships between numbers, words, and symbols

Arragement: arrange the parts of a problem to satisfy a criterion (anagrams)

Transformation: need to carry out a sequence in order to achieve a specific goal

Framing

How decisions or problem solving is posed may change the decision making task

Hypothesis Testing

Make and test an educated guess about a problem/solution

Mental Simulation

Mental rehearsal of the steps needed to solve a problem

Mental Set

Tendency to stick to solutions which have worked in the past

Functional Fixedness

Our tendency to rely on a function for an object and ignore other possible uses

Confirmation Bias

We seek to confirm what we already believe

Distraction by Irrelevant Information

People often get sidetracked and it detracts from effective understanding

Unnecessary Constraints

We put restrictions on our problem solving which don't exist

Insight

The sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error -- the "aha" experience

Decision Making

Evaluating alternatives and making choices among them

Compensatory Decision Models

Allows attractive attributes to compensate for unattractive attributes (care about time so you pay an extra $50 for a 1 hour layover)

Non-compensatory Decision Models

Do not allow some attributes to compensate for others (want cheap flight and don't care about the 12 hour layover)

Heuristics

Shortcuts that guide us in decision making

Availability and Representative

Availability Heuristic

Decision making based on the fact that things which are easily recalled seem to be typical/common (airplane ex. story vs. statistical analysis OR aruba is more dangerous than Cancun-Natalie Holloway)

Representative Heuristic

Matchin an object to a "concept" or "category" without processing how likely the fit may be (during lecture, a guy walks in wearing black leather, tattoos, chains, etc., we ask "why is there a motorcycle guy here?" when he is actually the guest speaker OR your new neighbor moves in and looks like a librarian or teacher, she is actually a hooker with a 'little black book')

Motivation

Vigor and persistence of goal directed behavior, helps move us towards our goals

Evolutionary Theory

Motivation plays a significant role in adaptation; social need to affiliate, share resources, provide protection, procreation

Biological Needs/Motives in Humans

Hunger, thirst, sex, temperature, excretory, sleep/rest, activity, aggression

Homeostasis: tendency for the body to want to maintain a state of constancy

Hunger/Food: energy is necessary for maintenance and growth

Social Needs/Motives in Humans

Achievement, affiliation, autonomy, nurturance, dominance, exhibition, order, play

Hypothalamus

Primary structure of the brain which signals hunger and satiation (fullness)

Lateral Hypothalamus (Near Side)

Turns hunger "on", stimulation yields increased eating, a lesion or damage can cause starvation

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (Lower/Middle)

Turns hunger "off", stimulation stops eating; lesion or damage can cause voracious eating

Biological Factors on Eating Behavior

Genetics influence metabolism

Bodily sensations: growl, distension

Chemical signals to the body

Genetic mapping of "obesity genes" (200 weight related genes)

Social Factors on Eating Behavior

Environmental influences on eating behaviors

Complex and multiply determined

Eat more in groups

Expectation and memory of meals

Palatability

Social interactions

Psychological Factors on Eating Behavior

Thinking about food and what it "means"

Learned food habits/preferences

Memories associated with food

Belief and feelings regarding body image

Cultural variations: robust = higher class

Food as a "substitute" for love/sex

Obesity/Overweight

Overweight: having excess body weight for a particular heigh from fat, muscle, bone, water, or a combination of these factors

Obese: having excess body fat

Result from a caloric imbalance--too few calories expended for the amount of calories consumed--and are affected by various genetic, behavioral, and environmental factors

Based on Body Mass Index

An adult w/ BMI between 25-29.9 is overweight

An adult w/ BMI of 30+ is obese

CDC 2005-2006 data 33.3% of men and 35.6% of women were obese

Childhood Obesity

More than tripled in the past 30 years

In 2008, more than one third of children and adolescents were overweight or obese

Health Concerns with being Overweight/Obese

Coronary heart disease

Type 2 diabetes

Cancers (endometrial, breast, and colon)

Hypertension (high blood pressure)

Stroke

Sleep apnea and respiratory problems

Main Reasons for Obesity in the US

Increased high fat is easily accessibly junk food

Increased portion size

Increased sedentary lifestyle

Anorexia

Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimal normal weight for age and heigh

Body weight less than 85% of the expected weight

An intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat

Distorted self-perception

Amenorrhea (not having your period)

Peak age 14-18; greater in females (shift in middle-age women also)

6% fatality rate (one of the highest of psychological disease)

Hard to treat

Theories on Anorexia

Anxiety regarding maturation

Difficulty expressing agression in high achieving families, often bright and capable

Difficult to treat because patients don't recognize it as a problem

Males increasing "obligatory runner"

Bulimia

Repeated episodes of bingeing followed by self-induced vomiting, laxatives, or enemas

1-3% of adolescent girls

Significant shame component

More treatable because people recognize problem

Often in normal weight range

Long term health issues: ulcers, hernias, hair loss, dental damage, electrolyte imbalances

Sexuality

Preference for those of the same or opposite sex

Heterosexual, bisexual, or homosexual

Kinsey Survey

Tried to identify sexual behaviors and references (survey data, need to question how truthful data was)

Identified sexual behaviors/preferences

Self-report data--bias issues

Limited validity

Important beginning to the study of sex

Asking teens about having sex: asking more questions will give more valid answers

Masters and Johnson

Need to understand actual sexual responses

Need direct systematic observation/measures

Subjects: originally used prostitutes (questions generalizability...non-normaltive sample)

Subjects: then recruited from general public

Sample: 382 men and 312 women

Age range: 18-92

Took physiological measurements

Created various "instruments" for this study

Results: sexual response cycle

Sexual Response Cycle

A predictable cycle for men and women

Excitement

Plateau

Orgasm

Resolution

50% of the erection is lost in 1 minute

Primary Sexual Findings and Phallic Fallacies

Males experience a refractory period

Prevalence rates of orgasm may vary for men and women -- may experience multiple orgasms although reports are that they reach orgasm less consistently than men

Concerns regarding size...it doesn't really matter

The average penis does not correlate with the size of an erectile penis

Most men worry they are on the smaller size

Gender Differences in Human Sexuality

Males think about sex more and willing to engage in sexual activity with more casual partners

Males place more emphasis on youth and attractiveness

Females place more emphasis on intelligence and ability to provide and protect (society labels them as prude or slut)

Biological vs. environmental influences on sexuality (Sex in the City Phenomenon)

25%-50% of people are dissatisfied with their sex life

Sexual Orientation and the Role of Biology

Research continues to support the role of biology in aspects of sexual orientation

Appears to be more variations for women in terms of sexual orientation

Homosexuality not considered a mental disorder since 1973

If one identical twin that identifies as homosexual, the percentage of the other identifying as homosexual is also high (not the case for fraternal twins)

Need for Affiliation

Need to be connected/related to others

Hill proposed 4 functions we strive to affiliate:

1. To obtain positive stimulation in our lives

2. To receive emotional support

3. To gain attention

4. To permit social comparison

Need for affiliation varies by individual

Increased need to affiliate in fear situations

Achievement Motivation

What drives us to seek out and reach goals; basic human motive to achieve

Motivation by success: thrill at mastery, sense of achievement

Motivated by fear of failure: fear of performing badly, increases anxiety

Yerkes/Dodson: optimal levels of anxiety/performance

Assessment of Achievement Motivation

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) developed by Murray and used by McClelland--a projective test which looks at themes of achievement

People high in achievement: tend to work harder and more persistently, more future oriented, able to delay gratification for long term goals

Emotion: Cognitive Components

Subjective conscious experience, includes an "appraisal" or evaluation of the situation

I'm overwhelmed right now...I have orgo in a few hours

Emotion: Physiological Components

Bodily arousal accompanies feeling states

Fight or flight

Assess with GSR/Polygraph

Polygraph Tests

Record autonomic fluctuations

Hypothesis: when subjects lie noticeable changes in physiological indicators

Results: not always accurate--sensitive to those high on anxiety measures, less likely to identify those who lie without accompanying discomfort

Emotion: Behavioral Components

Characteristic overt expression of emotion

Body language and facial expression

Six basic emotions generally able to identify

Happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust

Research on Happiness and Subjective Well-Being

Strong predictors: love and marriage, work satisfaction

Weak predictors/not predictive: money, intelligence and attractiveness

Facial Feedback Proponents

Belief that facial expressions themselves can control emotion

Display Rules

Norms that regulate the appropriate expression of emotions culturally determined

James-Lange Theory on Emotion

Conscious experience of emotion result from perception of arousal; "I'm scared because I am running"

Cannon-Bard Theory

Cognitive interpretation of a situation and response occur at approximately the same time; "I am running away and feeling scared"

Schachter's Two-Factor Theory

People use to factors to identify emotion; physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation; search the environment for an explanation for reactions; look for external cues to help label emotions

Social Skills

Interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility, naivete (i.e. wariness), social problem solving, and the ability to follow rules/obey laws and to avoid being victimized

Practical Skills

Activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills, healthcare, travel/transportation, schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of telephones

Psych 111 Schreier Exam 2

Psychology 111 with Schreier at University of Michigan - Ann Arbor

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