Praxis

Stage Theory

Piaget
The theory that is characterized as progressing though a predictable sequence of stages, with earlier stages providing the foundation for the later ones.
Theory that depicts development as a series of relatively discrete stages.

Constructivist Theory/Constructivism

Piaget's theory that children construct beliefs and understandings based off their experiences.

Scheme

Piaget

Background knowledge. Groups of similar actions or thoughts.

Assimilation

Piaget

Dealing with and object/event in a way that is consistent with an existing scheme.

Ex: A child identifying a slithery object in the backyard as a snake.

Accommodation

Piaget

Modifying an existing scheme to account for a new object/event that doesn't fit into an already present scheme or creating an entirely new scheme for the object/event to deal with it.

Discovery Learning

Students learn by doing and experiencing rather than from an instructor.

Equilibrium

When students can comfortably explain new events with existing scheme

Equilibration

A movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium back to equilibrium through accommodation.

Sensorimotor Stage

Birth-2 Years Old

Schemes are based mainly on behaviors and perceptions.

The Child is focused on the here and now. What they are doing and seeing in the moment.

Start to understand

Object permanence
Cause and Effect
Symbolic thought-words represent objects

Preoperational Stage

2-6 or 7

Schemes now represent objects beyond a child's immediate view.

The child does not yet reason in logical, adult like ways.

Language knowledge explodes
Egocentrism-aren't able to view something from another p.o.v.
Egocentric speech-talking about things the listener may know nothing about
Lack of conservation-water in two glasses aren't same amount

Concrete Operations Stage

6 or 7-11 or 12

Adult logic appears but is limited to reasoning about concrete reality.

Deductive reasoning- can draw logical inferences
Understand conservation

Formal Operations Stage

11 or 12-Adulthood

Logical reasoning processes are applied to abstract ideas as well as concrete ones.

A child's development is impacted by others around them

Vygotsky

Through both informal conversations and schooling, adults convey to children the ways in which their culture interprets and responds to the world.

Thinking in words

Vygotsky

Children, within the first two years, don't necessarily think in terms of words; words are primarily used for communication. Words and thought are separate. They then begin to combine was the child has more language skills.

Cognitive Tool

Vygotsky

Concept, symbol, strategy, or other culture-based mechanism that helps people think and act more effectively.

Children notice the cognitive tools used by others around them and start to use them as well.

Internalization

Vygotsky

The process through which social activities evolve into independent activities.

Ex: Children gradually internalize adults' directions so they are eventually giving themselves directions.

Actual Development Level

Vygotsky

The upper limit of tasks one can perform on their own.

Level of potential Development

Vygotsky

The upper limit of tasks one can perform with assistance of a more competent individual.

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky

The range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently.

*This is where children learn the most

Scaffolding

Jerome Bruner

Support mechanisms that help learners successfully perform a task within their ZPD

Information Processing Theory

Theoretical perspective focusing on the specific ways in which learners mentally think about/process new information and events. It is different than stage theory in the fact that the brain is constantly changing instead of moving through stages before it changes.

Metacognition

One's knowledge and beliefs about one's own cognitive processes and one's resulting attempts to regulate those cognitive processes to maximize learning and memory.

Attentions

As children grow, they become less easily distracted
Children learn what they intend to learn

Learning Strategies

As children grow they use rehearsal strategies
As children grow, organization improves
As children grow, learning strategies become increasingly efficient
Elaboration emerges around puberty

Knowledge Base

As children grow:

their amount of knowledge increases
their knowledge base becomes increasingly integrated
The more information children have, the easier it is to remember things

Metacognition Attributes

As children grow:

Knowledge of their own cognitive processes improve
they become more aware of their limitations
they become more aware of effective learning strategies

The Components of Language

Phonemes
Morphemes
Semantics
Syntax
Pragmatics
Phonology

Phonemes

The smallest unit of sound

Morphemes

The smallest unit with meaning

Ex: Cats is two of them. Cat is one and s is one. It can be a word or not.

Semantics

The meaning

Syntax

The sentence structure

Pragmatics

The use of language to communicate

Phonology

The sound system of a language

Overgeneralization

Overextending the use of a word by using one label for several objects

Ex: Using the word dog for a cow or horse

Undergeneralization

being too restrictive in the application of a word by leaving out situations when the word applies

Ex: Applying the word animal only to those animals with fur

Over-regularization

Incorrectly applied grammar

Ex: using the past tense ed as in she comed

Trust V Mistrust

Erik Erikson

Stage 1 0-18 months

Develop trust if nurtured and can depend on others

Mistrust if they are not nurtured

Autonomy V Shame

Erik Erikson

18 months-3 years

Autonomy- Self sufficient, can solve own problems

Shame-Caretakes demand too much and they don't feel they can handle their own problems.

Initiative V Guilt

Erik Erikson 3-6

Initiative- if kids are given independence, they will take responsibilities for their own needs and activities.

Guilt-Plans are discouraged

Industry V Inferiority

Erik Erikson 6-12 A critical period for building self-esteem

Patterns of working hard and persisting even if it is hard and learning to take pride in their accomplishments

v

being punished for not being able to live up to a standard or reach expectations and are punished for it. Start to doubt themselves.

Identity V Role Confusion

Erik Erikson 12-18 A critical period for building self-esteem

When treated like adults and challenged with realistic goals they achieve identity as an adult.

If still treated as children they may have mixed feeling about where they fit in society.

Imaginary Audience

Students believe that they are the center

James Marcia

Identity Diffusion

Inability to commit to choices

James Marcia

Identity Foreclosure

Making a commitment based on someone else's choices

James Marcia

Identity Moratorium

Desire to make a choice, but not now

James Marcia

Identity Achievement

Committing to choices and consistently maintaing them.

James Marcia

Personal Fable

Belief of teenager that they are completely unlike anyone else

James Marcia

Leve I: Pre conventional Morality

Ages 4-10 Lawrence Kohlberg

Punishment avoidance: Obedience is based solely on the individual. Students will disobey if they won;t get caught.

Exchange of Favors: Right and wrong are defined in terms of consequences to the person. Children recognize others have needs too.

Level II: Conventional Morality

Ages 10-13 Lawrence Kohlberg

Good boy/girl: Moral decisions are based upon what actions please others. Intentions are important.

Law and Order: Children perceive rules to be inflexible and it is their duty to obey them.

Level III: Post conventional Morality

Ages 13 -->

Social Contract: Rules represent agreement among many people. Rules are considered flexible and can be changed if inadequate.

Universal Ethical Principal: Individual"s universal principles transcend concrete rules. People follow their inner conscience.

Authoritative Parent

Provides: love, support, and consistency with rules

Creates: Self-confident, independent, and respectful child

Teacher Response: adopt authoritative style

Authoritarian Parent

Provides: little warmth, high expectation, and little regarding child's opinions or needs

Creates: anxious, low self-confidence, and coercive children

Teacher Response: adopt authoritative style, provide warmth, and solicit perspectives

Permissive Parent

Provides: love, few expectations, and no consequences

Creates: selfish, dependent, and impulsive child

Teacher Response: adopt authoritative style, high expectations and consequences

Uninvolved Parent

Provides: No emotional support, few expectations and little interest in child

Creates: low self-control, absence of long-term goals, and disobedient child

Teacher Response: adopt authoritative style, emotional warmth, high expections, and consequences

Academice Tools for Enhancing Self-Esteem

Have high expectations, complete with support and encouragement
Access students' prior knowledge
Design assignments to take students step by step so errors don't occur
Let students know that errors give rise to better understanding
Give students opportunities to revise and improver their work.

Structured Immersion (ESL)

Used in elementary grades

All lessons are in the immersion language

Sheltered Immersion (ESL)

Used in secondary grades

Subjects are taught in English

Simple Vocabulary is used

Pull-Out Immersion (ESL)

Used when the diverse population is too small for an entire class

Students are taken from general ed classes for special instruction

Instructional Adaptations

Ability Grouping
Accommodating Learning Styles
Programmed Instruction
Computer-Based Programs

Cognition and Knowledge Construction

Basic Assumption of Knowledge Construction
The Human Memory
Concept Learning
Promotion Effective Knowledge Construction

Basic Assumptions of Knowledge Construction

Student Centered Instruction

Let students experience things for themselves

Problem Solving

The more closely related to real life the better

Interaction Socially and Environmentally

Group Work
Work in actual environment where problem will arise

Recognize students prior knowledge

Sensory Registry

Keeps incoming stimuli in its original structure
Limited capacity 1-3 seconds
When students pay attention the info moves to working memory

Working Memory

Keeps info while it is mentally processed
Limited capacity 5-20 seconds
Thinking occurs in this stage
The info is then either stored in long term memory or lost

Long Term Memory

Information can be held indefinitely
Limitless capacity
The more info stored, the easier it is to remember new information

Ways to Assist in Long Term Memory

Rehearsal/Repeat
Meaningful Learning
Organize info well
Elaborate-Connect it to prior knowledge and expound
Mnemonic Devise

Procedural Knowledge

Knowledge on how to perform in a certain order

Concept Learning

Mental grouping of objects, actions, ideas

Positive/Negative examples
Defining features
Prototypes

Promoting Effective Knowledge Construction

Using prior knowledge
Integrating curriculum
Open-ended curriculum
Understanding multiple perspectives
Cognitive flexibility
Apprenticeship
Authentic Application

Operant Conditioning

B.F. Skinner

a form of learning during which an individual modifies the occurrence and form of its own behavior due to the association of the behavior with a stimulus.

Positive reinforcement

Getting a piece of candy as a reward

Negative Reinforcement

A shock when touching something

Two Types of Reinforcers

Primary-affect behavior without having to be learned

food or water

Secondary-acquire their power because o their association with primary reinforcers

money

Highly Directive models of classroom management

Occurs when teachers direct student behavior and control them with the use of external rewards and punishment

Used with

Lecturing
Drill and practice
Questioning

Assertive Discipline

model of classroom management that maintains that teachers have the right to establish rules, require students compliance, and expect parental/administrative support

Lee Canter

Behavior Modification

a classroom management model where behavioral problems are defended and measured to determine what triggers (antecedents) or reinforces (consequence) must be adjusted to successfully guide behavior.

Democratic Model

Jacob Kounin and Rudolf Dreikurs

Let students participate in the management of the classroom

With-It-Ness

Prevent misbehavior rather than deal with it once it happens

With-It-Ness

Jacob Kounin's term for teachers who are consistently aware of what is going on in the classroom. Students usually respect these teachers.

Ripple Effect

Jacob Kounin

the tendency for teacher reprimands or praises to speared to students other than those for which they were intended

Logical Consequences

Rudolf Dreikurs

Consequences relate to the misconduct and seek to rectify the wrong.

Not giving attention to those acting out to receive it
Having students clean the room when they leave trash lying around

Harry Wong's Democratic Model

Advocates a businesslike approach

learning students names
explicitly teaching transitions
establishing a list or rules with positive/negative consequences
specific praise and criticism
Praise publicly while rebuking privately

Humanistic Models of Classroom Management

Carl Rogers

Most student centered and least directive approach to classroom management

Goal of the student is self-discipline with teachers being facilitators rather than directors

Students are viewed as important participants in the learning process.

Inquiry learning
group projects
self assessment

Premack Principle

A preferred activity can be used as a positive reinforcer for a less frequent or less preferred activity.

Extra recess minutes
Free time in class
Access to activities or games that aren't usually available

Classroom Management things to Remember

Physical Environment
Classroom Rules
Consequences
Rewards
Classroom routines
Transitions as routines
Punishment

ABCD Lesson Plan Format

Audience
Behavior expected of the student

Uses a verb, define, describe, construct, etc.

Content in which the learning occurs

A story, movie, group project, etc.

Degree of accuracy

How well will they know it

Bloom's Taxonomy

Lower order thinking to higher levee thinking skills

Knowledge-memorization

select, define, reproduce, list

Comprehension-Explaining in ones own words

estimate, describe, discuss

Application- Using info in a real situation

predict, solve, show, compute

Analysis- examining the info

infer, separate, point out, diagram

Synthesis-combining info to create something new

adapt, rearrange, construct, devise

Evaluation-appraising info/data

judge, conclude, defend, critique

Direct Instruction

Teacher centered instruction

Constructivism

students construct their knowledge from their experiences through interaction with the environment. A form of student-centered instruction.

Discovery Learning

Jerome Bruner

Occurs when a teacher organizes the class so students can learn by becoming actively involved.

Unguided Discovery

Jerome Bruner

When little or no directions are given in an activity. usually used in preschool

Guided Discovery

Jerome Bruner

Direction is given by providing a provoking question or scenario to encourage students to explore for answers and explanations. Used more in elementary school and secondary school, not preschool.

Inquiry Learning

John Dewey

This model is often associated with science and allows students to gain knowledge of content and process at the same time.

In this model students

formulate a hypothesis
collect data
draw conclusions
reflect
evaluate

Cooperative Learning

This type of learning occurs when students work in small, multi-ability groups that encourage total participation. Creates independence, encourages relationships, develops communication, leadership, and conflict management.

Individualized Instruction

this type of instruction is designed to meet the needs of a particular student. may modify time, activities, or materials. Special needs students or gifted students.

Well Defined Problems

Type of problem solving where:

Goals are clear
All info is present
There is one path to the solution

Ill-Defined Problems

Type of problem solving where:

Goals may be unclear
Relevant info may be missing
Several solutions might exist

Better for transfer because most problems outside of school are these types of problems.

Algorithms

Problem solving method that uses a step by step approach

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation that takes the form of reinforcement. Rewards are used to increase certain behaviors. Use to:

try to engage students in a low interest task
Provide feedback for increasing competence
give students social support and acceptance.

Decrease the reinforcers over time and refocus the students on intrinsic satisfaction.

Intrinsic Motivation

This type of motivation typically occurs that are characterized as challenging, personally selected, or highly novel. Try to create learning situations that evoke this kind of reinforcement.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Personal needs must be met before a student can focus on intellectual pursuits.

Physiological Needs: food, shelter and water
Safety Needs: freedom from harm
Belonging Needs: love/acceptance from peers and family
Self Esteem Needs: recognition/approval from people important to the individual

Attribution Theory

An effort to account for why students are either successful or unsuccessful in the classroom.

Internal Locus of Control

When students believe that their successes or failures (attribution theory) lie within their control. They believe that with proper instruction and hard work they can experience success. These students exhibit these characteristics:

Taking responsibility for their outcomes
Experience pride for their successes
Exhibit autonomy in their endeavor
Tend to attribute failure to lack of effort

External Locus of Control

When a student believes that outside factors determine their success in the classroom. They often use the following excuses:

Luck
Lack of innate ability
An outside factor that is uncontrollable

Student believe that not matter how hard they work, they won't be successful.

Self Efficacy

A belief that students are capable of competent to perform certain task or activities. This is based on successful past performance.

Performance Goal

A students' desire to look good or avoid looking inept to others. Students with these goals are more likely to cheat, compare their performance with others, seek attention for their performance, and focus on grades instead of acquisition of knowledge.

Learning Goals

A student's desire to master additional skills or attain new information. Students with these goals are more likely to work hard and use their resources.

Individuals With Disabilities Act (IDEA)

A law that states that educational rights are to be granted to all people from birth to 21 years who have cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities. Also:

A free and appropriate public education (FAPE)
Fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation
An individualized education program (IEP)
An education in the least restrictive environment (LRE)
Due process (given the attention they deserve)

IEP

Includes the following information

Present level of performance
Strengths and needs
Annual goals and short-term objectives
Instructional strategies
Support servies
Evaluation criteria

Inclusion

When a special ed student is placed in the least restrictive environment (LRE) that they can personally handle academically, physically, and socially. Students achieve at a higher rate when placed in settings with non disabled classmates. they improver classroom behavior, opportunities to interact with non-disalbed peers, and improved attitude toward school.

Modifications for Special Needs

DefinitionAdjust size of assignments
Vary time allowed
Increase the amount of support provided
Decrease the level of difficulty
Alter the extent of participation
Provide an alternative assignment that capitalizes on a students strengths

Cognitive or Academic Challenges

Characteristics: challenge i specific cognitive processes such as memory, language, or perception.
Manifestations: Learning disabilities, speech/communication disorders, adhd
Strategies: Implement the IEP, create routines, limit distractions, analyze students work to identify and assist with specific challenges.

Social and Behavioral Challenges

Characteristics: Exhibit behaviors that are disruptive and/or notably disrupt academic performance
Manifestations: Autism and behavioral disorders
Strategies: Implement the IEP, create routines, limit distractions, establish clear guidelines for interaction, employ cooperative learning and peer tutoring, limit unsupervised activities.

Delays in Cognitive and Social Performance

Characteristics: Considerably below average intelligences and insufficient adaptive behaviors.
Manifestations: Mental retardation
Strategies: Implement the IEP, create routines, establish reasonable goals, use direct instruction and peer tutoring.

Physical or Sensory Difficulties

Characteristics: Medical or physical condition of the body or senses
Manifestations: Hearing or visual impairments/loss and health of physical difficulties
Strategies: Implement IEP, provide means for participation, and utilize technology to assist with insertional goals

Advanced Cognitive Development

Characteristics: Advanced intellectual ability or talents
Manifestations: Giftedness
Strategies: Implement the IEP, encourage autonomy by teaching research strategies, and promote the use of higher order thinking skills.

Diagnostic Assessment

Assessment that provides information needed to make decisions regarding alternative methods or procedures. Determining the content or type of instruction needed for students.

Formative Assessment

Assessment that determines what a student can do prior or during instruction.

Summative Assessment

Assessment that assesses students achievement upon the completion of a lesson or unit.

4 Quality Testing Characteristics

Reliability
Standardization
Validity
Practicality

Objective Assessment

An assessment that determines the core knowledge students have of a subject.

Declarative Knowledge

Knowledge of how things are such as vocabulary, fundamental concepts, and basic procedural means. Used in Objective assessments.

Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner

There are many ways to learn.

Linguistic Intelligence
Logical-Mathemeatic Intelligence
Spatial Intelligence
Musical Intelligence
Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
Interpersonal Intelligence
Intrapersonal Intelligence
Naturalist Intelligence
Existential Intelligence

Linguistic Intelligence