FINAL EXAM TERMS

Trivers-Willard Hypothesis

? Females in good condition should favor sons (because they have better reproductive success) ? Females in poor condition should favor daughters

Provisioned opposums

have a ratio of 1.4:1 (males to females)

Red deer

? Dominant females have more sons ? Subordinate females have more daughters

Post-WWII America

sex ratio shifts

Mukogodo (and gender RS)

men have no RS because they don?t have any money for bridewealth. Women can be traded to maasai

Traits favored by Sexual Selection

Traits providing advantages in competing for mates (bright ornate coloration, courting rituals)

traits favored by Natural Selection

Traits providing advantages for general health and long lives

traits favored by Natural & Sexual Selection

e.g. body size, motor coordination, symmetry (traits that provide advantages in competing for mates and good health)

INTRAsexual selection

Direct competition between members of the same sex

Large canines, Large antlers, etc.

Traits that help with competition between members of the same sex

Secondary sexual characteristics

characteristics that are different between sexes (male gorillas are two times larger than females)

INTERsexual selection

Traits preferred by members of the opposite sex

Female choice

Choices are based on perceived genetic quality. Genes that direct for poor choices will be eliminated

Bowers

RS depends on display of Bower

Consequencecs of INTRAsexual selection

sexual dimorphism, body size and weaponry/ male mortality due to competition, large antlers/canines, etc.

Bateman?s principle

Males have much greater variance in RS Some males get high RS, some get none

Robert Trivers and Anolis lizards

More variance in RS in male Jamaican anolis lizards than females

Male reproductive strategy where there is no investment

they will try to reproduce all the time, with anything that looks remotely like a female

Female reproductive strategy where there is no male investment

Females are the investors. Mate choices are based on perceived genetic quality

Competition for investing sex

whichever sex has the higher RS will compete for the investing sex

Parental Investment

Any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offspring?s change of surviving at the cost of the parent?s ability to invest in other offspring

Reproductive strategies (irregardless of gender)

Maximize # of copulations and partners (typically male) Maximize genetic quality of offspring (typically female)

Sex role reversed species

species in with secondary sexual characteristics are reversed- females act like typical males

Jacana

sex role reversed birds whose male incubate eggs and feed chicks. In this species, females are larger (in size) and males are choosy

Ismail the Bloodthirsty

888 female mates: theres a differential reproductive potential between males and females

Limitations of female Reproductive success

theres a differential reproductive potential between males and females- females are limited by cycles, ovulation, length of pregnancy

Hiwi

they have more males than females and they form stable relationships

Ache

more females than males- unstable marriages and extra-marital affairs

Prostitution

Men compete for females in all cultures- they are willing to pay money for sexual access

Sexual dimorphism

difference in form between individuals of different sex in the same species

Elephant seals

Males physically fight, High mortality rates in males, Few males get RS

Sexual dimorphism in humans

Males are heavier, taller, more facial hair, deeper voices, later sexual maturity, fat deposition in abdomen, higher risk taking behavior

Sperm competition

Intrasexual selection on the level of the sperm (since sperm from other males will stay in reproductive tract for a while, competitors will try to get rid of it)

Female promiscuity

provokes sperm competition

Damselfly penis

penis deposits sperm and then twists to remove competitor sperm

Copulatory plugs

prevents competitors from copulating

Penis barbs

Some species have barbs on their penis that temporarily attaches them to the female during sex

Sperm Cooperation

Mouse and rat sperm have hooks. By bunching together they can out swim rival male?s sperm

Baker & Bellis

Men adjust # of sperm/ejaculate based on probability of sperm competition

The role of female Orgasm

Hypothesises to help sperm make its way to ovaries

Orgasm & symmetry of male partners

Females have more orgasms with more symmetrical (attractive) partners

Male genital morphology and mating behavior

large testes, large penis-sperm competition

Gorilla testes and penis size

testes are small- not many spermies released. Loyalty. Low sperm competition.

Chimpanzee testes and penis size

huge testes, very promiscuous- competition

Human testes and penis size

Human penis is much larger than expected. The shape might have evolved because of sperm competition

Sperm swimming speed and mating behavior

in promiscuous primates, sperm have a need for speed

Fisher?s Sexy Son Hypothesis

runaway effect of sexual selection- female favored traits will continue to become more prevalent until they are unsustainable and Natural selection steps in

Runaway effect of sexual selection

preference for something that is detrimental to reproduciton/ health? this trait will become extinct

Good genes

an approach to sexual selection that suggests individusls choose mates according to the fitness potential of their genome

Honest signal

traits honestly linked to an individual (good genetic traits that can not be faked) Female is able to judge the quality of the male's genotyope

Zahavi?s Handicap principal

Assume that males with larger, more symmetrical secondary sexual characteristics have better genes (they go through everything that regular males do but with an investment handicap)

Hamilton & Zuk?s Parasite Resistance Model

male showiness allows females to assess male's ability to resist parasites

Nuptial gifts

courtship ritual- displays of ability to provide nupital gifts

Bowers/nest building

courtship ritual- displays of ability

Scorpionflies

females lay more eggs when males bring bigger food gift or when a male is LARGER

Peacock?s train

Runaway effect.Trait will continue to develop until it becomes unsustainable and Natural selection steps in

Human breasts

looks as if they were NOT shaped by natural selection. Follows closer to the model of runaway sexual selection.

Life History variables

In mammals in general but specifically in humans- stretching out of life history variables. We are not born with our brains fully developed. Periods: gestation, infant period, juvenile peroid,

Growth LHV

organisms must grow to a size that they can fend for themselves and reach a size that they are sexually mature and large enough to attract a mate. Investment impacts on future RS

Repair & maintenance LHV

energy must be allocated to coping with infections and parasites and repairing damaged tissue. Investment impacts on future RS

Reproduction as a life history variable

Investment by definition is concerned with RS

Post-reproductive death

most animals die after they are incapable of reproducing

Horomones in human females

lead to fat storage and menstrual cycling

Hormones in human males

Androgens lead to increased musculature and competitive mating displays

r-selected species

species that produce many short-lived and quickly maturing offspring that need little parental investment

k-selected species

species that produce a small number of slowly growing and long living offspring that require considerable parental investment

demographic transition

represents transition from highbirth and death rates to low birth and death rates as a country develops

Menopause

the cessation of monthly ovulation experienced by women usually in their late forties ?perhaps due to childbirth risks

Grandmother hypothesis

1/3 of female life is lived post fertility. Perhaps so grandmothers can share resources with kin

Systematics

the study of the diversity of life and the relationship between different categories

Taxon

a category of organisms in a classification system

Phenetic classification

based on genetic decent. stresses results of adaptations and hence morphological and anatomical similarites

Convergent evolution

acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages

Cladistics

ignores phenetic relations and classifies species by their recency of common ancestry

Distingusihing features of Primates

Social Systems, large brain, Stereoscopic vision, Opposable Thumbs, Reduced Oflaction, FINGERPRINTS

Dermatoglyphics

Distinguishing feature of Primates: Ventral surface of hand and feet have well defined fingerprints. Also important: people who are schizophrenic have asymmetric fingerprints

Allopatric speciation

when one species evolves into a new species due to being geographically isolated

Formation of the Great Rift Valley

separated East and West Africa- Climactic cliff. New and Old world Monkey divergence. Apes stayed in forests, humans ventured out and became bipedal.

Bipedalism

Occurred after divergence of monkey species and climactic cliff

Features that distinguish humans from primates

Hairlessness, reduction in dentition, enlarged brain, language, rich material culture

Theories of the evolution of Bipedalism

Climate shift; hunting, predator avoidance, reduction to UV exposure,

Man the Hunter/Scavenger

Theory about bipedalism- stamina for hunting males

Predator Avoidance

Theory about bipedalism- merecats, able to stand and see predators

Woman the Gatherer

Theory about bidedalism- frees up hands Women can gather nuts and fruits while taking care of infants, but can NOT go out and hunt

Reduction to UV exposure

Standing upright decreases SA of body exposed to sun

Divergence from last common ancestor with apes

after divergence from chimps, human ancestors became increasingly bipedal

Ardipithecus

moving towards human like trajectory- skeletal remains show that they mgiht have been bipedal at a point

Australopithecus

striding terrestrial biped with large chewing teeth. Pan-African Range

Homo

stone tools (meat) massive expansion of brain size, dentition reduction

Gorillas

sexually dimorphic, males have prominent sagittal crests, KNUCKLEWALKING

folivores

leaf eaters

Chimpanzees

Frugivores (fruit), Excellent mental mapping, extensive tool use, cooperative hunting, Fission-fusion social system, knucklewalking, medicinal plant use, suspensory locomotion and feeding postures

Fission-fusion social system

sleep in one locality together, but forage in small groups going off in different directions during the day

Bonobos

Matriarchal- females stay in natal groups and collectively dominate males, frequent sexual behavior, often stand/walk bipedally

Trends in human evolution

Increasse in body and brain size, increasingly bipedal, decrease in sexual dimorphism, dental evolution towards meat-eating

Transition to Homo

increasing reliance on meat- tool use. Dental adaptations

Encephalization

emergence of a very large brain (humans)

The role of meat eating

Need diet rich in fats and nutrients for neurological tissue to develop

Evolutionary Compromise: brain size and bipedalism

Narrow pelvis & large head --> Humans give birth to premature infants- brian continues to grow after birth

Human gestation

should be 21 months if baby were to be born with a fully developed brain (based on body size)

Sexual dimorphism and male parental investment

sexual dimorphism decreases with increased male parental investment (shifting of social systems to provide parental care)

Concealed ovulation

(in humans) good strategy for parental investment gets males to stay close by (they don't know when a woman is ovulating)

Allometry

as an organism increases in size, no reason to expect that dimensions of its parts increase in proportion to mass or volume

Human brain size compared to other mammals

standard formula that predicts mammalian brain size based on body size: human brain size should be 264 grams but the actual average size is 1,300

Endocasts

Brain size in fossil record can be estimated from endocasts: impressions from inside of skulls

Brain size in Australopithecines

Brain size is about what would be predicted for body size

Brain size in Homo

3x larger than what would be predicted for that size

Energy use by the Brain

Costly to produce, expensive to maintain, 2% body mass uses 20% of energy

Organ system trade-off

reduction in gut size, utilization of higher quality foods- metabolic energy redirected from digestion to brain

Prenatal brain growth

Prenatal brains require 60% of basal metabolic rate

Adaptations to Increased Brain size and growth in humans

baby is born earlier- brain continues to grow out of body

Arboreal Theory of Primate Intelligence

Large brain required to move and feed in trees; stereoscopic vision, manual dexterity (BUT: cats?)

Frugivorous Omnivores

Eat fruits that ripen in time and space and insects--> intelectual demand of a balanced diet. Cognate mapping. Avoiding plant-counter mechanisms

How primates locate food

foraging- requires intellect

Spider monkeys v. howler monkeys

Spider monkeys deal with a larger food supply (by a factor of 25)- requires cerebral development

Tool use and human brain size

Tool use- complicated- might explain encephalisation. Huge difference in primates

Encephalization and ballistics

complex coordination required to throw a ball

Brain lateralization

left and right side of brain

Handedness

great apes show very little preference for one hand over another.

Left-side cradeling

leaves open the right hand

Club-wielding

to scare off early predators in early stages of bipedalism (slow moving stages)

Machavellian Intelligence

primate intellegence allows an individual to serve his best interests by cooperating with or manipulating the group without disturbing the social cohesion of the group

Primate Group size

larger groups will have more conflict, move around more slowly, have less food per individual, etc. But smaller groups are susceptible to predators.

Social conflict

your neighbor will always be a competitor (for food and other resources)

Dominance hierarchies

alpha males and those at top of heirarchy reap most benefits. They also have most connections and network well in complex society

Grooming

an effective method to reduce tension of conflict in a group

Deception

primates will send out false warning cries and other signals to mislead

Theory of Mind

realizing that other bodies out ther have minds complete with beliefs, intentions, and mental states that can be predicted

Intensionality

order of awareness of minds (I know that you know that I know that you know?)

Mirror test

test for self awareness: Does an individual realize that the thing in the mirror is itself?

Primitive core of brain

inherited from our reptilian ancestors

mid-section of brain

sensory perception- integrating bodily funciton- white matter

outer layer of brain

has LARGE surface area in humans makes up 80% of human brain (35% in most mammals)

Neocortex

enlargment in humans- driven by advantages of processing and using socially relevant information

Encephalisation and Runaway Selection

females preferred smarter males- sons are smarter. Females prefer smarter males. positive feedback loop

InterSexual Selection and Brain size

artful displays of cognition and brain size for sexual selection

Genomic imprinting

occurs when the operation of a gene depends on the sex of the parent from whom the gene came

Maternally active gene

comes from mother- offspring more related to mother (less conflict)

Paternally active gene

comes from father- offspring less related to mother more conflict)

Neoteny

Small genetic change that effects the timing of development of genetic features

Steven Pinker

1994: Language has been the outcome of a selective force; bears signs of being designed to serve a specialized function

Origin of Human Language

grooming device in complex social groups. Brain got larger and developed capacity for language

Broca?s area

Area of the brain specialized for motor production of speech

Wernicke?s area

Area of the brain specialized for comprehension of speech

Paternity certainty

Investment will increase with paternity certainty. Mothers are 100% certain that their child is theirs- for

Asymmetry in paternity certainty

Offspring have asymmetry in parental certainty

Physical resemblance of offspring

Males tend to have better relationships with children who look similar to them (they can be MORE CERTAIN that it is their child) More investment, too.

Abusive husband experiment

Severity of abuse is Inversely proportional to the perceived resemblance between father and offspring

Sibling affection

In parent?s best interest for offspring to cooperate

Social doctrine of offspring/siblings

all children treated equal regardless of full or half sibling status

Mormons

More affection is felt for full siblings than half siblings even in Mormon families (unconscious encouragment by mother for cooperation between her own children)

Grandparental solicitude

More solicitude from Maternal grandparents than paternal grandparents

Distribution of inheritance

people will: Leave more to kin and spouses than non relatives; Leave more to kin than distant kin; Leave more to offspring than siblings; Wealthy parents- leave more to sons; Poor parents leave more to daughters

inclusive fitness

Parents benefit from investment in children by inclusive fitness

Parental altruism

Mothers go to great lengths for offspring to protect and to nurture them

parent-offspring conflict

(Trivers 1974) At some point the parent needs to invest less in the child to save energy for own benefits (Though child might still demand investment)

gerontophagy

hatchlings consume the parental body- ULTIMATE parental investment

weaning conflict

weaning curve- the mother will wean until the benefits outweigh twice the cost. The time when it becomes in the mothers best interest to STOP weaning is sooner than the time for the offspring. In between these two time periods: weaning conflict

carrying conflict

a point during pregnancy when the cost outweighs the benefit

tantrums

infants throw tantrums to get what they want even though it is not what the mother wants

maternal-fetal conflict

fetus only shares 50% of her genes with her mother- it will try to extract as much as it can (more than mother is willing to give)

David Haig 1993

suggested that fetal genes may be selected to extract more investment than the mother is selected to give- witholding resources to invest in future offspring

Gestational diabetes

conflicts over glucose- fetus extracts more sugar from the mother- beyond mother's control

Miscarriage

78% of conceptions end in miscarriage

Spontaneous abortion

often the aborted would have had genetic abnormalities- quality control mechanism?

Progesterone during pregnancy

First produced by mom, then controlled by fetus in later weeks

HGC (human chorionic Gonadotrophin)

produced by fetus: stimulates release of progesterone to help maintain pregnancy

Maternal blood supply

Fetus stimulates blood to flow to the placenta- dilates arteries in uterus to reduce vascular resistance- increasing maternal blood pressure

Spiral arteries

mother's counter to artery dilation occuring when fetus stimulates blood flow to placenta

Hypertension in pregnant women

often in 3rd trimester: result of blood-supply conflict- vericose veins and pre-eclampsia

Breast milk

sedative-like substances found in breast milk

Prader-Willi Syndrome

maternally active genes extract less resources from mother- poor sucking response-child doesn?t grow to its full extent

Angleman?s Syndrome

Paternally acive genes extract as much resources from mother as possible- prolonged sucking, active, plenty of nutrients

Homicide

homicide statistics are very revealling for anthropological information

Daly & Wilson 1988

applied sociobiological thinking to violence in human families; made predictions from evolutionary logic

Infanticide

Common in animals, big cats, and primates. Males kill infants to bring mothers back into estrous

Infanticide in Jacanas

(sex role reversed species), females will destroy eggs of other females to lay her own eggs in the nests of males

Infanticide in humans

adaptive strategy; can be the best option to maximize RS (low resources, deformed child, etc.)

Infanticide by mothers

Decreases with age of mother; older women are near the end of their reproductive life

Infanticide and reproductive value of offspring

Infanticide decreases as child ages; investment (cost) builds

Risk of Infanticide

decreases with offspring age (dramatically after 1st yr of life);

Infanticide by unrelated individuals

having an unrelated biological parent in the home is the most powerful predictor of abuse/neglect/mistreatment/death for children under 18

Cinderella Syndrome

cross cultural tales depicting nasty step-mothers and step-fathers and evil done to non-biological children

Infanticide in traditional societies

children are often killed if their mother is taken by a new man (Yanomamo and Tikopia)

Step Children & investment

Step-children leave home earlier, receive less college tuition, financial support, etc.

Infanticide by biological parents

usually painless- shooting, smothering, drugging (non-biological infanticide involves beating/abusing)

Marriage

cross-cultural expectations for permanance, sexual acess, obligations, children, etc.

Bridewealth

traditional view of women as property- purchasing of a woman

Kipsigi bridewealth

the earlier the woman was at first onset of puberty, the more valuable (in terms of cattle) this woman is

Cuckoldry

consequences of infidelity is GREATER for males

Veiling

Act by males to prevent female infidelity

Mate guarding

Act by males to prevent female infidelity

Chastity belts

Act by males to prevent female infidelity

Foot binding

In China: method to prevent wives from running away

Female circumcision

used to keep women from being unfaithful very painful process- practiced in 23 countries today

Women as reproductive property

cultures other than US see women differently (europe, china, africa)

Adultery laws in Europe

Adultery grounds for divorce FOR HUSBAND ONLY- violation of mans property - husband entitled to compensation

Forced choice tests (to measure jealousy)

self report level of stress during sexual v. emotional infidelity scenarios

Physiological measures (of jelaousy)

heart rate, skin conductance, temperature, frowning activity

Emotional infidelity

women get more upset/jealous compared to sexual infidelity

Sexual infidelity

men get more upset/jealious compared to emotional infidelity

Divorce ? who seeks it when?

men- infidelity, women- cruelty

Youth and fertility

This is what men seek out

Resources

women are looking for resources (from men)

Divorce in Nature

"monogamous" ringdoves

Context dependent adaptive behavior

what works in one environment might not work so well in another- mating strategy will vary

Mating systems in traditional societies

vast majority is NOT monogamous

Hunter Gatherers and polygyny

too much male-male competition- males cannot hunt and gather alone. Lower levels of polygyny (one or two wives, typically)

Resources and mating strategies

availability of resources plays key role in mating strategies

Kung San!

Mild polygyny, males have higher variance in RS than females

Ache

men hunt so they can offer women meat for sex

Large game hunting

Men cannot hunt alone- if they kill a large animal, they have to share meat (or it will go bad) High levels of male cooperation leads to low levels of polygyny

Harems

groups of women belonging to a male (of power)

Eunuchs

castrated males that defended and guarded harems

Testes size and mating system

testes size predicts the intensity of sperm competition

Human mating system

If humans evolved in uni-male groups -> smaller testes and greater sexual dimorphism If Multi-male groups -> larger testes and conspicuous ovulation

Human penis size

Human penis size is much larger than what would be expected

Gordon Gallup (and human penis)

penis has evolvd as a semen displacement device

Polyandrous mating

Evidence about human male anatomy suggests that females have evolved to by polyandrous (with sperm from multiple males in their reproductive tract at one time)

Extra Pair Copulations

play an important role in human evolution

Immunology and promiscuity

higher WBC count in promiscuous persons

Sex for Food Theory

hunting males exchanged meat for sex with females. Females continuously mimicked estrous? eventually a definite period of estrous and sexual signaling specific to ovulation was lost

Anticontraceptive Theory

women have developed enough cognitive ability to asociate conception with copulation. Women might avoid copulation at this time. Genes outwitting consciousness.

EPC Theory

female can mate with a genetically superior male without her partner knowing. Male still invests in child.

Daddy at Home Theory

Men must stay close to home to ensure paternity

Nice Daddy Theory

prevents infanticide by confusing issue of paternity

Adaptation for increased male parental investment

human females concealed ovulation in order to obtain male aid in rearing offspring

Pleuralistic mating strategies

differences in long term and short term mating strategies

Attractiveness

Some universal standards for attraction

Golden ratio

Found in human body, hands, face, feet. Found in many things in nature

Masculinity/Femininity

There are certain features that can be described as feminine/masculine (faces)

Qualities of an attractive Male face

Larger Jaw, squared off chin, prominent brow ridges. More pronounced features suggest more testosterone

Qualities of an attractive Female face

attractive female faces have shorter distance from chin to lips and lips to nose. Larger eyes. Fuller Lips

Preferences for faces

81% men prefer more feminized women, and women prefer more masculinized faces

Puberty and facial structure

hormones change the shape of male (testosterone) and female (estrogen, progesterone) faces

Female face at ovulation

more symmetrical- more attractive

Female body

thin waist, long slender legs, curvaceous hips

Male body

washboard abs, broad shoulders, strong pectoral muscles

Body in motion

part of the brain lights up when you see a body in motion- look at hips and waist to tell if its male or female

Puberty and body changes

female waist becomes smaller

WHR

has to do with distribution of body fat.

Sexy body movements

Shoulder swagger (males) and hip swagger (females)

Matching experiment

10 males and 10 women with numbers on their heads are asked to pair up with the highest number possible (they can be accepted or rejected)- the numbers tensd to match up (even tough they cant see their own number- Main point: we receive signals about our own attractiveness and learn about our "league"

Voice and attractiveness

men choose women with high itched voices, women choose men with low pitch voices - indicators of respective hormone levels

Hadza

hunter gatherers- prefer higher WHR (0.9). In addition, men with lowest pitched voices have higher RS

Puberty and voice changes

testosterone builds in men at pubery

Women?s voice at ovulation

becomes sexier due to high estrogen levels

Burger King study

Women are less attracted to men in Burger king Uniforms

Occupation/income and attractiveness

Men don't care so much. Women are attracted to high salaries, Etc.

Androstenone

females tend to find this (male) mixture of sweat, hormones and bacteria aversive until a certain point in the menstrual cycle

Smelly T-shirt experiments

females prefer the scent of more symmertical men and are repelled by father and brother's sweat

MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex)

immune system determines which bacteria can live on the ski- MHC is a combination of immunity genes- different MHC is more attractive

Copulants

vaginal secretions: scents

Male exposure to copulants

lose the ability to discriminate between attractive and unattractive females; testosterone levels spike

Helen Fisher

Studied Romantic love- combination of lust, attractiveness, and attachment

Kissing and Testosterone

Male saliva transmits testosterone and increases sex drive

Dopamine

dopamine leads to exhileration which is associated with love

fMRI of people looking at their loved one

Ventral tegmental area is lit up- dopamine produced here. Also the primitive area involved with competition and desire

Ventral Tegmental area

dopamine is produced here (feeling of love)

4 year itch

pair-bonded women want to stray from their partners after 4 yrs...just long enough to raise a child

Prarie Voles

high levels of vasopressin cause prarie voles to be strictly monogamous

Vasopressin and Monogamy

kidney function and water retention- higher levels in brains of monogamous men

Oxytocin and Monogamy

high levels in brains of monogamous women

Sex Drive hormone

testosterone

Romantic Love hormone

dopamine

Attachment

long term lovers- calm and secure- dopamine

Cosmetic surgery

Billion dollar industry- People spend huge amounts of money trying to retain their looks as they age

Attractiveness as an honest signal

of fertility and health

Fitness enhancing traits

we have inherited preferences for attractive individuals (honest signals)

Questionnaires

mostly college students

Sexual dimorphism in human cognitive abilities

females develop social skills sooner?

Lonely heart ads

women seek financial security, Men seek attractive women

Infant preferences for attractiveness

preference for symmetrical faces

Preferences for feminized male faces

women describe these faces as "sensitive" "caring" - would give parental investment

Female preferences on the birth control pill

prefer feminine features- caretakers

Female preferences during ovulation

prefer masculinized faces

Fat distribution and hormones

after puberty, men store fat in middle , women store fat in butt and hips

Health correlates of WHR

Survival goes up as WHR goes down, High WHR women are more susceptible to heart disease, cancer

WHR at ovulation

lowest value at ovulation

Sexual behavior and WHR in women

women with lower WHR participate in more EPCs; lose virginity at earlier ages; have more sexual partners

Shoulder-to-Hip (SHR) ratio in men

comparable to WHR. Women prefer 1.18

Sexual behavior and SHR

men with higher SHR participate in more EPCs; lose virginity at earlier ages; have more sexual partners

Fat distribution and neurodevelopment

Upper body fat has negative effects on neurodevelopment; lower body fat has positive effects (fatty acid for fetal brain development)

Human breasts

LARGE- permanently enlarged mammary glands- femininity

Copious menstruation

substantial amount of blood and tissue lost each month- women shed the lining of their uterus

Menstruation in traditional societies

females RARELY menstruate, they are either pregnant or nursing during most of their lifetime

Pathogen Removal Theory (menstruation)

menstruation helps remval of pathogens acquired from sex? (but various tests do not support the theory)

Signal of Fertility Theory (menstruation)

Menstruation is a signal to attract males to fertile women BUT females are infertile during menstruastion (theory doesn?t hold)

Evolutionary Side Effect Theory (menstruation)

no specific adaptive purpose- endometrium is less costly to shed and rebuild than it is to maintain

Litter weight/mother?s body weight ratio

litter weights vary among species; distinct relationship between mothers body size, litter size, and amount of endomtrium buildup (higher in species with high raito)

Endometrial lining

expensive to maintain

Oxygen uptake rate

Oxygen uptake rates increase 7x during a cycle with a peak at the period of implantation

Female cancers in Western Societies

Traditional societies don?t have as much breast cancer- their cycles are more similar to our ancestors.

Asymmetry

deviation from perfect bilateral symmetry

Directional Asymmetry

(like human handedness) one side of the trait tends to develop more than the other in a predictable manner

Anti-Symmetry

One side is developed more than the other but with no particular bias (like fiddler crabs and their claws)

Fluctuating Asymmetry

deviations from perfect bilateral symmetry that fluctuate randomly in either direction around the mean

FA as an indicator of Developmental stability

Fluctuating Asymmetry is an indicator for developmental stability- capacity for resistance to environmental stress and internal genetic stress

Van Valen (FA experiment)

experiments on fruit flys showed that FA increased when flies were raised under various stressful situations (HEAT STRESS --> higher FA)

Schizophrenia and AB ridge count

asymmetric fingerprints on schizophrenic patients

Etoro warriors

sperm is saved for men and only 'given' to females for reproduction. Sperm is needed for fighting and hunting

Homosexuality in animals

has been observed in more than 1500 species

G-G Rubbing

bonobos use sex to diffuse tension, induce cooperation, and establish social bonds

Rams

estimated 8% of males are male oriented. (new study)

Black swans

homosexuality

Lesbian gulls

Lay 5-6 eggs, behave like heterosexual gulls (pseudo copulation)

Xq28

X-linked gene associated with homosexuality in males

Sex antagonistic genes

Location suggests that the function of the gene may be sex antagonistic: Function of gene is beneficial when found in a female but costly when found in a male

Maternal Stress Hypothesis

Extreme stress in the mother in 2nd trimester results in increased likelihood of male offspring being homosexual

Homosexuality Post-WWII Europe

More male homosexuals born to mothers who were pregnant during war time

Additive effect of older brothers

The more older brothers an individual has increased probability of being homosexual (mother forms antibodies to Y chromosome of first son??)

Cognitive abilities and homosexuality

Males better at spatial rotation and mental rotation. Females are better at verbal abilities and they have higher tactile sensitivity

Transsexuals

When given cross-sex hormones, they begin to show cross-sex patterns on ability tests almost immediately

Female Homosexuality

null

Homosexual olfactory processing

Most smells processed in part of the brain associated with the olfactory bulb. Opposite-sex smells are processed in the sexual center of the brain. Reverse for homosexuals.

Basic emotional systems

seeking, rage, fear, panic, play, lust, care

Adaptive features

fitness enhancing behaviors/traits : were positive in past and are positive now

True pathologies

were deleterious in past- reduces fitness in modern times

Quasi-normal behavior

would've reduced fitness in past, but are now tolerated/desirable

Pseudopathology

provided a benefit in our ancestral past but NOW decreases fitness (morbid jealousy, preferences for high-calorie foods)

?Out of Eden? Hypothesis

provided a benefit in our ancestral past but NOW decreases fitness (morbid jealousy, preferences for high-calorie foods)

Defense mechanisms

coughing, nausea, diarrhea- unpleasantness motivates us to avoid things that cause it

Smoke detector principle

has to do with cost of reacting v. probability of a false alarm

Phobias

People can be conditioned to adversely react to benign stimuli

Stress response

hormones, fight or flight, blood flow, etc.

Pleiotropy

a gene or set of genes can have more than one effect

Attachment Disorder

trouble with emotional relationships due to lack of emotional bonding with mother (early removal)

Post-Partum Depression

A way to solicit help from father?

Psychopathology

antisocial personality disorder- no empathy or remorse; cold-hearted, selfish, etc.

Primary psychopathology

obligate strategy, genetic predisposition

Secondary psychopathology

environmental risk factors; neglect/abuse during childhood

Cliff Edge effect

array of mutations of several genes: each convey various advantages

Autism

impairment of social relationships; no eye contact; bad communication skills, obsessive routine;

Genomic-Imprinting and Autism

hyper-masculinizaiton of brain- reduced decoding of emotional and social cues

Social placenta

The human brain- its an organ that links into wider social networks to extract resources for the individual to flourish

Culture

socially transmitted information (not in the human genome)

Spectrum of Gene-Culture Interaction

Scale describes the relatedness of culture and genomics. Two extremes:

Culture as Autonomous

the thought that culture has nothing to do with science and evolutionary biology

Cultural evolution as NS for ?Memes?

revolutionary model with cultural entities experiencing RS

Meme

an element of thought or culture that replicates in human brains

Paradox of Religious Belief

religion/ religious beliefs are inconsistent, theygo against the natural laws of the univers, require believers to act against biological inclinations, and have very little support/evidence. BUT PEOPLE STILL BELIEVE IN RELIGION

Food preparation techniques

these are memes that have biological benefits

Problems with memetics

changes in memes are goal directed while changes in DNA are random and undirected (analogy isnt perfect)

Dual inheritance model

both culture and biology evolve by separate but interacting processes. Culture enables humans to adapt to rapidly changing environments by acting as a biologically useful source of information, customs, and norms

Innovation

Imitation is important for learning in humans but innovation is necessary for culture to move forward

Rapid climate fluctuations

cultural transmission became advantageous during this time

Cultural evolution

much more rapid than genetic evolution

Maladaptive cultural traits

example: abstinence. But these cults WILL go extinct

Extended juvenile period

allows for acquisition of cultural skills and knowledge.

Gene-Culture Coevolution

culture has some autonomy from genes but culture is constrained by an elastic leash. Culture applies the force that drags genetic change bt cannot drift too far from genetic interests

Yam cultivation

example of gene-culture coevolution: selection for sickle cell trait

Lactose intolerance

example of gene-culture coevolution: domestication of cattle and consumption of milk more important in high altitudes

Culture as extended phenotype

Dawkins 1982 suggested that the effects of genes can extend beyond the "vehicles" that carry them through time. Wilson 1975 suggested that ethical norms may be a way our genes persuade us to cooperate to serve their best interests

Metaculture

universal components that are the product of natural seleciton (language, grief, association with kin)

Evoked culture

different types of cultural adaptations for different local environmental conditions

Adopted culture

when one culture spreads to another

Culture as Sexual Display

result of sexual display like bowers built for attracting mates

Hand axes

NON-functional. Social signal of cognitive and manual ability?

Jazz in Culture

formof sexual display? Musicians have a large number of sexual partners

Moral Values

HARD TO DEFINE

David Hume

moral truths are inherent facts that arise from human emotion

Morality

the name we give to the emotions that steer us away from cheating and toward cooperative behavior

Reciprocity

associated with moral theory, trust, guilt, punishment, commitment

Runaway Trolley Experiment

people tend to save larger quantity of people, more closely related people, more mentally stable people (psychopaths are sacrificed). Consistent studies across cultures support theory of universal morality

Darwinian approach to morality

there may be a heritable component, primates have homologous actions; sex differences in morality (chastity, etc.); changes during lifetime; variation within conditions; rapidly changing environment- retooling of moral convictions

Kohlberg and Moral Development

as people develop, they move through increasingly sophisticated levels/stages of moral reasoning

Preconventional morality

simple exchanges, obey authority for own's sake

Conventional morality

most people fall in this stage- loyalty and graditude; caring; even contributing to the moral order in society

Post-conventional morality

Treating people as ends in themselves; respect for equality of human rights; concerned with welfare of ALL

Why do moral dilemmas arise?

conflict of values: forgiveness and punishment, Novel Environments

Social Darwinism

a rather loose collection of ideas rooted in USA and europe during 19th century. Promoted minimum state conrol and free competition in the economy

Herbert Spencer

Promoted minimum state conrol and free competition in the economy: "survival of the fittest"

Francis Galton

believed there was a correlation between genetic constitution and social standing

Eugenics

intervention of evolution. Encouraging spread of good genes (positive) and discourage spread of bad ones (negative). Concept of genetic inferiority.

Nazi Eugenics

hitler obsessed with racial purity. Forced sterilizations.

Euthanasia

mentally ill adults, jews, homosexuals,

Race and Intelligence

eidence of racial superiority. But there's no clear association when controlled for certain variables.

Sociobiology

attempts to explain social behavior by considering the Darwinian advantages specific behaviors may have

E.O. Wilson?s Sociobiology

started the sociobiology debate. There was much fear (after eugenics movement) about biological determinism

Evolutionary Biology and Sexism

Resistnace by feminists to the idea that there are biological differences between men and women?.. DUH. The applications of these findings, however CAN be sexist. There's no proof that one sex will be better than another at something (except sperm donation, being pregnant, etc.)

Evolutionary Biology and Racism

genetically, race is meaningless. Most often assigned by skin color(very tiny part of genome)

Margaret Mead

student of Boaz. Claimed a found utopian society. Duped by subjects n=2

FINAL EXAM TERMS

Anthropology 204 with Jacobson at Rutgers University - New Brunswick/Piscataway

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