exam 2 complete package
Biology 102 with Darville/martin/transue at Rutgers University - New Brunswick/Piscataway
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Asexual Reproduction
No fusion of sex cells(gametes)
Parthenogenesis ?
?Virgin Birth?
Intro
- Asexual Reproduction : No fusion of sex cells(gametes)
- Sexual Reproduction : Union or fusion of gametes
Sexual Reproduction
Union or fusion of gametes
Asexual Reproduction : No fusion of sex cells(gametes)
- Budding ? part of the parent body separates or fragmentation (parent body breaks apart and the different parts regenerate)
- Mitotic divisions give rise to clones
- Have the same genetic constitution of the parent
- Parthenogenesis ? ?Virgin Birth?
- Reproduction in Honey Bees
Parthenogenesis ? ?Virgin Birth?
- Females produce eggs (usually by meiosis) which develop w/o fertilization by the male
- Some fish or reptiles are parthenogenetic
- Evidence that parthenogenetic vertebrates arise as Inter-specific hybrids -
Reproduction in Honey Bees
- Queens(2n) produce eggs by meiosis
- Workers (females, 2n) develop from fertilized eggs(can?t reproduce)
- Drones (males, n) develop from unfertilized eggs and produce sperm by mitosis
Sexual Reproduction : Union or fusion of gametes
- Real sponges are Hermaphrodites
- Nudibranchs (sea slugs) are cross fertilizing hermaphrodites
- Hermaphrodites have sexual reproduction
- Evolution and Sexual Reproduction
- Co-Evolution
Real sponges are Hermaphrodites
Produced both eggs and sperms ?Hermes and Aphrodite?
Evolution and Sexual Reproduction
- Most common form in animals
- Some organism can reproduce both ways
Co-Evolution
Sometimes evolutionary ?arms race? between
Some organism can reproduce both ways
- Good Conditions ? Asexual
- Poor or Changing Conditions ? Sexual
Mammalian Reproduction
- Development
- Female
- Male
Development
- Indifferent Gonads ? can?t tell at early stage
- Development of Internal Gonads
- Development of External Genitalia
- How to define Gender
Indifferent Gonads ? can?t tell at early stage
- Testes ? produce androgens and testosterone
- Ovaries
Testes ? produce androgens and testosterone
Determining genes on Y
Development of Internal Gonads
2 Complete sets of paired ducts ? male and female
2 Complete sets of paired ducts ? male and female
One degenerates in the female and the other degenerates in the male
Development of External Genitalia
Genital Tubercle
Genital Tubercle
- High Level of Testosterone ? Penis
- Very Low Level of Testosterone ? Clitoris
- Penis and Clitoris ? homologous structures
How to define Gender
- Chromosomal Sex ? XX an XY
- Genetic Sex ? can override chromosomal sex
- Phenotypic Sex ? internal genitalia and external genitalia
- Psychological Identification
Female
- Internal Anatomy
- Oogenesis ? egg production
- Hormonal Control in Females
- 28 Day Cycle
Internal Anatomy
- Ovaries
- Endometrium
- Uterus
- Vagina
- Cervix
Ovaries
- Produce steroid sex hormones ? estradiol and progestrone
- Produce gametes(eggs) ? released into the pelvic cavity and then picked up by the oviduct
- Size of an almond
Endometrium
- Inner most layer of the uterus. Shed during a period
- Where the egg will embed itself into
Produce gametes(eggs) ? released into the pelvic cavity and then picked up by the oviduct
Fertilization occurs in the 1 st 1/3 of the oviduct
Uterus
- Size of an inverted pear
- Two layers
Vagina
- Extends from the uterus to the opening of the exterior of the body
- Receives sperm and part of the birth canal
Two layers
- Smooth Muscle
- Endometrium
Cervix
- Has a cervical opening ? very small
- Btwn. the Vagina and the endometirum, extends into the vagina, narrow, plugged by mucus
Oogenesis ? egg production
- Ovary has many capsules ? Follicles
- When puberty period begins at each menstrual cycle atleast one follicle matures then
- Enters meiosis ? primary oocyte ? Metaphase 1
- After Anaphase 1
- During Ovulation ? secondary oocyte is released
- Secondary Ooctye remains at metaphase II until fertilized
- After fertilization ? meiosis 2 occurs
Ovary has many capsules ? Follicles
- Oogonia ? cells developed when female is a fetus through mitosis
- One cell is a potential egg cell
After Anaphase 1
- You get secondary oocyte
- Also get polar body ? which is rejected
During Ovulation ? secondary oocyte is released
Some Follicles got released but others produce a structure ? Corpus Luteum ? temporary endocrine gland which secretes estrogen and progesterone
After fertilization ? meiosis 2 occurs
3 polar bodies and 1 ovum
Hormonal Control in Females
- Hypothalamus ? Gonadotropin-Releasing hormone (GnRH)
- Anterior Pituitary ? 2 Gonadotropins ? targets the ovaries in females
- Ovary ? steroid sex hormones
- Gonadotropic Hormones ? under FSH and LH influence
- Ovarian Hormones ? Estrogen and Progesterone
Anterior Pituitary ? 2 Gonadotropins ? targets the ovaries in females
- Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
- Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
Ovary ? steroid sex hormones
- Estrogen ? estradial (principle hormone)
- Progesterone
Estrogen
? estradial (principle hormone)
28 Day Cycle
- Days 1 to 3 ? 7
- Days 3 ? 7 to 13 (Pre- Ov.)
- Day 14
- Day 15 ? 27 (post Ov.)
- Day 28
- ? Simple? Menstrual Cramps
Days 1 to 3 ? 7
- Maturation Occurs
- Ovary ? Low level of hormones
- Uterus(Endometrium)- Menstrual Flow Phase
Maturation Occurs
P. ? Nothing Going On
Days 3 ? 7 to 13 (Pre- Ov.)
- Ovary ? Follicular Phase ? Follicle Develops
- Uterus(Endometrium)- Proliferative phase
- Near Ovulation Estrogen has positive feedback on the A.P. which causes to peak LH and FSH
Day 14
Ovary ? Ovulation
Ovary ? Follicular Phase ? Follicle Develops
Produces Estrogen
Produces Estrogen
Has many targets but main target is endometrium
Uterus(Endometrium)- Proliferative phase
Cells undergo division ? endometrium becomes thicker
Day 15 ? 27 (post Ov.)
- Ovary ? Luteal Phase
- Uterus(Endometrium)- Gets thicker, also has formation of glands ? secrete various substances
- Rising levels of Estrogen and Progesterone
Ovary ? Ovulation
Release egg in an explosive manner ? very high hydrostatic pressure
Day 28
- No LH to produce Estrogen and Progesterone
- Uterus(Endometrium)- blood supply gets cut off
Ovary ? Luteal Phase
- Progesterone is also released into the blood as well as targeting the endometrium
- Estrogen and Progestrone change the endometrium
- Peak of E and P cause a negative feedback on A.P. which causes a decline in LH and FSH
? Simple? Menstrual Cramps
Caused by prostaglandin ? if contraction is too strong
Male
- Anatomy
- Spermatogenesis ? have constant supply of sperm
- Mature Sperm
- Pathway of Semen
- Hormonal Control
- Fertilization
- HCG
- Placenta
- Pregnancy
Testis
- Held outside of the body b/c it needs temperature lower than body temperature
- Role ? formation of gametes and hormone testosterone
Spermatogenesis ? have constant supply of sperm
- Spermatogonia ? diploid cells can divide by mitosis; some can enter meiosis pathway
- Primary Spermatocyte
- 2 Secondary Spermatocytes
Seminiferous Tubules
Where sperm cells are formed
Epididymis
- Outside the testis
- Sperm is held here
Vas Deferens
Sperm is released here during ejaculation
Mature Sperm
- Head
- Midpiece
- Flagellum
Primary Spermatocyte
Sperm enters meiosis
2 Secondary Spermatocytes
After 2 nd Mitotic division
After 2 nd Mitotic division
- Becomes Haploid Spermatids (4)
- 4 Sperm Cells
Head
- Acrosome ? contains enzyme that are going to be needed for fertilization; allows the sperm head to enter the egg cells
- Nucleus
- Only this portion enters the 2 nd oocyte
Midpiece
- Filled with mitochondria
- This portion is left behind when the head enters the egg
Flagellum
- 9 + 2 Structure
- Providing the energy to move
Pathway of Semen
- 90 % semen ? fluid
- 10% semen ? sperm cell
- Sperm Path ? Lumen of Seminiferous Tubules ? Epididymis ? Vas deferens ? Seminal vesicle ? Urethra ? penis - released
- Seminal Vesicle (attached to vas deferen)
- Urethra
Progesterone
is also released into the blood as well as targeting the endometrium
Seminal Vesicle (attached to vas deferen)
- Major source of extra fluids
- Major source of prostaglandin
Urethra
Can carry urine at one point and semen at another point but not at the same time
Hormonal Control
- Hypothalamus - GnRH
- Anabolic Steroids
Hypothalamus - GnRH
- P. ? Gonadotropins
- Interstitial cells in testes
- Located outside the seminiferous tubules
- Androgens (testosterone)
- Testes work by negative feedback system
P. ? Gonadotropins
- FSH ? stimulate sperm production
- LH ? acts on interstitial cells in testes to secrete testosterone
Anabolic Steroids
- Mimic the actions of testosterone
- Affect the negative feedback system
Affect the negative feedback system
Feedback of Hypothalamus and A.P. to slow down production of FSH and LH which causes the interstitial cells to decrease and decrease sperm production which can lead to infertility
Fertilization
- ~400 million sperm are ejaculated only a few 100 reach the egg
- 20 minutes or so after ejaculation the sperm gets to the egg...
- 2 nd Oocyte lives is viable for 24 hours but optimal 12 hours
- Sperm is viable from 48 to 72 hours after ejaculation
- After fertilization ? 2 nd Oocyte completes meiosis II
- Development embryo after 7 days implants itself onto the...
- Embryo produces HCG ? Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
HCG
- Same effects of LH ? signals Corpus Luteum to continue to function
- ?Pregnancy Switch?
- Helps embryo attach to the endometrium
- Highest level at the 2 nd month
Placenta
- By the 3 rd month it takes over
- Importance source for estrogen and progesterone
- NO need of HCG and Corpus Luteum
Pregnancy
- Obstetrician ? 40 weeks ? last missed period
- Developmental Biologist ? 38 weeks ? start with day of fertilization
Spermatogonia
? diploid cells can divide by mitosis; some can enter meiosis pathway
Stages of Development
- FERTILIZATION
- CLEAVAGE
- BLASTULATION
- GASTRULATION
FERTILIZATION
- Number of different things going on
- Sequences of events are similar for all, but look different
- Yolk ? serves as food for the developing embryo
- Gamete Anatomy
- Species Identification
- Events of Fertilization
Number of different things going on
- Echinoderms ? easy to grow, change to environment
- Frog ? has some time to grow
- Chicken ? needs time to grow
- Humans ? need time to grow
CLEAVAGE
- Rapid cell division ? mitosis + cytokinesis
- NO cell growth: cell divides but volume does NOT increase
- Protosomes ? spiral cleavage
- Deuterosomes ? radial cleavage
- Blastomere ? generic ? repeated divisions increase # of cells
- Benefits
- Different Divisions
Yolk ? serves as food for the developing embryo
- Echinoderms ? very little
- Frog ? Mild
- Chicken ? a lot
- Humans ? almost none ? start as echinoderms and end up as birds
Gamete Anatomy
- Human sperm
- Human Egg ? 2 nd Oocyte
- Analogy to Starfish
Human sperm
Acrosome at the tip which contains hydrostatic enzymes
Species Identification
- Internal Fertilization
- External Fertilization
- Starfish
- Mammals
Human Egg ? 2 nd Oocyte
- Package of follicular cells around the egg
- Zona pellucida halo around the egg ? non cellular layer around the egg
- After Ovulation
- Sperm has to get through the corona radiata than the zona pellucid and then it will reach the 2 nd oocyte
Analogy to Starfish
- Vitelline envelope = zona pellucid
- Jelly Coat = Corona Radiata
After Ovulation
Granulosa cell become the corona radiata
Jelly Coat = Corona Radiata
Both are non- cellular
Internal Fertilization
- ?code? is still retained
- Increase the odds of fertilizing the right egg
Events of Fertilization
- Capacitation
- Acrosomal Reaction ( both events occur at the same time)
- Syngamy ? union of gametes
External Fertilization
have a match ? recognition ?code? to make sure the right egg is fertilized by the right sperm ? otherwise the egg is wasted
Starfish
- Binding protein on acrosome ? receptors on V.E.
- VE has receptor proteins that must be combined w/ binding protein to proceed
Mammals
- Receptors on Z.P.
- Glycoprotein ?ZP3? must match
Capacitation
- In humans it takes 6 hours
- Triggered by molecules in the female system the sperm becomes activated and motile
- Acrosome gets ready to break into the egg
Acrosomal Reaction ( both events occur at the same time)
- Exocytosis of hydrolytic enzyme on the zona pellucida
- Species identification ? as mentioned before
Syngamy ? union of gametes
- At end of acrosomal reaction ? cell membranes fuse ? plasmogamy only
- When sperm enters: 2 processes occur to prevent other sperms from entering
When sperm enters: 2 processes occur to prevent other sperms from entering
- ? Fast (electrical) Block? - temporary
- Slow Block ? starts at the same time as F. Block
- In mammals ? causes change to ZP3 receptors
- Egg Activation
? Fast (electrical) Block? - temporary
- Ca2+ influx into the egg - depolarization
- Takes place in 1 ? 3 sec.
- Repolarization occurs in about 1 min
Slow Block ? starts at the same time as F. Block
- Takes over from the fast block
- Permanent
- ? Cortical Reaction?
Egg Activation
- in humans ? increase in protein synthesis in about 5 mins
- 2 nd oocyte completes meiosis ? haploid oocyte
- Pronuclei ? n+n or 2n
- Fusion of haploid pronuclei
- Karyogamy ? occurs at the end of 1 st mitosis
- 1 st Cell division
1 st Cell division
In humans about 24 hours after gamete plasmogamy
In humans about 24 hours after gamete plasmogamy
2 celled stage
Acrosome ?
contains enzyme that are going to be needed for fertilization; allows the sperm head to enter the egg cells
BLASTULATION
- Change in structure but NOT in size
- Blastula ? hollow ball of cells produced by cleavage of fertilized ovum
- Internal organization ? solid mass of blastomeres ? fluid filled hollow
- Sea urchins ? whole unit gives rise to adult body ? blastula
- Humans
- Indentical Twins
- Cells Differentiate
- Conjoined twins
- Fraternal twins
- After 10 Days
Benefits
- Smaller pieces ? easier to move
- Better Surface Area/ Volume Ratio (side2/side3)
Different Divisions
- Holoblastic Cleavage
- Meroblastic Cleavage
- Blastodisc
- Humans
- Morula
Holoblastic Cleavage
- Entire Volume of zygote continually divides
- Equal Holoblastic
- Unequal Holoblastic
Meroblastic Cleavage
- Only part of the original volume divides
- Macrolecithal ? a lot of yolk and also telolecithal
Equal Holoblastic
- Equal size blastomeres
- Microlecithal ? very little yolk
- Isolecithal ? distribution of yolk ? evenly
Unequal Holoblastic
- Mesolecithal ? Moderate amount of yolk
- Frog
- Animal Pole divides faster than Vegetal Pole
Frog
Telolecithal ? uneven distribution of yolk - Vegetal pole ? location of yolk and Animal Pole
Blastodisc
- W here chickens come from
- Black ? Chicken, Yellow - Zygote
Macrolecithal ? a lot of yolk and also telolecithal
- Typical of birds and reptiles
- Yolk in one blastomere ? will not divide
Morula
- about 32 ? 64 blastomeres
- nearing uterus
- 3 days old
- Not called zygote
GASTRULATION
- Formation of 3 germ layers
- Clear formation of the body
- Cells become identifiable ? cell differentiation
- Sea Stars
- Birds
Indentical Twins
- Monozygotic ? inner cell mass splits into 2 each
- Cells in morula ? totipotent ? can give rise to anything necessary for placenta and adult mass but not the placenta
- At end of blastulation ? not totipotent
Cells Differentiate
- Totipotent Stem Cell
- Pluripotent Stem Cell
- Multipotent Stem Cell ? gives rise to muscle tissue and regrows cells using these stem cells
At end of blastulation ? not totipotent
Pluripotency ? gives rise to mant different cells but not us
Conjoined twins
Inner cell mass doesn?t completely divide
Fraternal twins
2 eggs fertilized separately
After 10 Days
- Embryo implanted
- Blastulation ending, gastrulation beginning
- HCG secretion by trophoblast ? signal baby is here
- Totipotency ends
Sea Stars
- Invagination ? indentation in the embryo then
- Ingression
Birds
- Primitive Streak ? indentation of the blastodisc
- Henson?s Node ? end of P.S. ? ends up being the head
Ingression
- Cells are breaking free and starting to move inwards ? making a hole
- Tube eventually come onto otherside
- Primitive Gut ? blastopore
- Tube becomes Archentron ? differentiates into the digestive system, central cavities lined w/endoderm
- Blastocoel ? space inside fluid filled ? DOESN?T become anything
Henson?s Node ? end of P.S. ? ends up being the head
- Indicates where gastrulation and ingression occur
- Cells ingressing towards the primitive groove ? start spreading out and setting up layers
Yolk ?
serves as food for the developing embryo
Zona pellucida
halo around the egg ? non cellular layer around the egg
Granulosa cell
become the corona radiata
Vitelline envelope
zona pellucid
Jelly Coat
Corona Radiata
Acrosomal Reaction (
both events occur at the same time)
Syngamy
? union of gametes
When sperm enters
2 processes occur to prevent other sperms from entering
Slow Block
? starts at the same time as F.
NO
cell growth: cell divides but volume does NOT increase
Protosomes ?
spiral cleavage
Deuterosomes ?
radial cleavage
Blastomere ?
generic ? repeated divisions increase # of cells
Humans
- Amniotic sac comes from amnion ? grows and starts to fold around and completely surrounds the embryo ? cushions and protects the embryo
- Yolk sac ? no yolk but equivalent ? contributes to the vascular system
- By 15 days ? gastrulation is complete ? cells specialized
Genetic Testing
- Chorionic Villi Sampling: lower rate, chorion tissue layer developed in the placenta ? week 8 - 9
- Amniocentesis: test the amniotic fluid ? 16 weeks
- ORGANOGENESIS
By 15 days ? gastrulation is complete ? cells specialized
Yolk sac not bigger, becomes insignificant, amnion gets bigger
NO cell growth
cell divides but volume does NOT increase
ORGANOGENESIS
- Organ formation
- By 4 weeks ? look at table 49 - 2
- Parturition ? Birth ? 266 days
- Control of development
Microlecithal
? very little yolk
Organ formation
- Neurulation ? day 19
- Induction
- Day 19
- Day 20
- Day 26
- Spina Bifida
Isolecithal
? distribution of yolk ? evenly
Neurulation ? day 19
- Starts at head first and ends up at the tail
- Growth of the nervous system
Notochord induces the neural plate ? also directs the development of other tissues
- Neural groove comes up and neural folding develops the dorsal hollow nerve cord
- Somites ? body sections and opening is called coelom
Day 19
- Ectoderm outside and endoderm at the bottom
- Notochord develops from mesoderm which induces development of nervous system
- Ectoderm cells near notochord thicken ? neural plate develop from it
Day 20
- N eural Plate drops down ? valley forms and the top of the valley comes together
- Loop becomes the dorsal hollow neural tube
- Somites ? blocks of mesoderm on either side of the neural tube
Day 26
- Neural plate ? disconnects from the dorsal hollow nerve cord
- Nervous system derived from the ectoderm
- Neural Crest ? cells that broken away from the neural plate ? sensory neuron and Schwann cells and adrenal medulla are derived
- From Neural Tube ? brain(w ventricles, hollow), spinal cord, motor neurons forms
- Notochord ? moves around and becomes tissue bwtn. Vertebra and spinal cord
Mesolecithal ?
Moderate amount of yolk
Telolecithal
? uneven distribution of yolk - Vegetal pole ? location of yolk and Animal Pole
Spina Bifida
Cleft spine, which is an incomplete closure in the spinal column. 3 types
Macrolecithal ?
a lot of yolk and also telolecithal
Cleft spine, which is an incomplete closure in the spinal column. 3 types
- Spina Bifida Occulta
- Meningocele
- Myelomeningocele
Spina Bifida Occulta
Opening in one of the vertebrae bones of the spinal cord column w/o apparent damage
Meningocele
The meninges(protective covering) have pushed out through the opening in the vertebrae in sac called ?meningocele?, the spinal cord remains intact
Myelomeningocele
Most severe form of S.B. in which the portion of the spinal cord itself protrudes through the back, in some cases, sacs covered with skin, in others nerves and tissues are exposed
By 4 weeks ? look at table 49 - 2
- Heart starts to beat
- Limb buds appear
- 4 ? 5 mm long
- Major organs are there but not fully developed
- External genitilia at 10 weeks
Control of development
- What controls gene expression
- 2 ways to control gene expression
What controls gene expression
- What controls determination and differentiation
- Nuclear equivalence
What controls determination and differentiation
Genes being turned on and off
Nuclear equivalence
- Initially all cells have the same nucleus
- But certain parts are used or on or off
Cytoplasmic determinants
- Proteins
- mRNA
- protosomes (mosaic)
- molecules in the cytoplasm of the embryo tells us which genes get turned on or off ? mostly proteins
Blastula ?
hollow ball of cells produced by cleavage of fertilized ovum
Induction
- Cell ? cell or tissue-tissue interactions
- Deuterostomes (regulative) ? interdeterminant cleavage ? we lose it after gastrulation
mRNA
regulates exp. of genes
protosomes (mosaic)
determinant cleavage
determinant cleavage
cells can only become certain organs
Internal organization ?
solid mass of blastomeres ? fluid filled hollow
Sea urchins ?
whole unit gives rise to adult body ? blastula
null
Trophoblast -
food ? go through their own development and give rise to the placenta ? gets nutrients from here
Musculoskeletal System
- Muscle Action
- Skeletal Muscle vs. Cardiac and Smooth Muscle
- Anatomy of a Muscle
Pluripotency ?
gives rise to mant different cells but not us
Muscle Action
- Muscles only contract ? only gets shorter
- Need base to apply and direct force generated ? skeleton
- Specific Actions
Muscles only contract ? only gets shorter
Antagonistic Muscles
Skeletal Muscle vs. Cardiac and Smooth Muscle
- Skeletal Muscle
- Cardiac Muscle
- Smooth Muscle
Antagonistic Muscles
One muscle does something the other does the return action
Need base to apply and direct force generated ? skeleton
Types of Skeleton
Types of Skeleton
- Hydrostatic skeleton
- Exoskeleton
- Endoskeleton
Hydrostatic skeleton
Muscles in compartment wall contract and push against the tube of fluid ? the force is transmitted through the fluid
Exoskeleton
Skeleton is lifeless shell
Endoskeleton
Internal skeleton
Flexion
- Decreasing the angle of the joint
- Ex. Biceps brachii
Abduction
Away from the midline of the body
Protract
Bringing forward
Pronation
Forehand facing down
Skeletal Muscle
Elongated, multinucleated cell, voluntary, visible striations, intercalated discs
Anatomy of a Muscle
- Muscle Fiber same as muscle tissue
- Endomysium
Cardiac Muscle
Multi- intercalated discs, involuntary, central nuclei, visible striations
Smooth Muscle
Involuntary, spindle shaped, tapered ends, proteins not organized the same way ? lack visible striations
Muscle Fiber same as muscle tissue
Single, elongated, multinucleated cell
Endomysium
- Microfibrils
- Myofilaments
- Sarcomere
Microfibrils
smaller than fiber
smaller than fiber
- longitudinal divisions of cytoplasm (7)
- functioning differently
Myofilaments
- In repeated sets ? sarcomere
- Thin Myofilament
- Thick Myofilament
- Power Stroke ? movement that occurs during contraction of the muscle
In repeated sets ? sarcomere
?muscle part? ? maintains the detail of the muscle ? action is within in this
Sarcomere
- Arrangement of myofilaments
- More force needed for more sacromeres
- H ? Zone only have myosin ? no actin, in the middle ? M-line
?muscle part? ? maintains the detail of the muscle ? action is within in this
line ? at the ends of a sarcomere, there is a protein layer
Thin Myofilament
Protein actin
Thick Myofilament
Protein myosin ? quaternary level protein
More force needed for more sacromeres
- Zone width of the myosin filaments
- Band only actin length with Z line in the middle
H ? Zone only have myosin ? no actin, in the middle ? M-line
Line myosin filaments
Invagination ?
indentation in the embryo then
Blastocoel ?
space inside fluid filled ? DOESN?T become anything
Primitive Streak ?
indentation of the blastodisc
null
Amniotic sac
comes from amnion ? grows and starts to fold around and completely surrounds the embryo ? cushions and protects the embryo
Yolk sac ?
no yolk but equivalent ? contributes to the vascular system
By 15 days
? gastrulation is complete ? cells specialized
Chorionic Villi Sampling
lower rate, chorion tissue layer developed in the placenta – week 8 - 9
Neurulation ?
day 19
Amniocentesis
test the amniotic fluid – 16 weeks
Notochord
induces the neural plate ? also directs the development of other tissues
Neural groove
comes up and neural folding develops the dorsal hollow nerve cord
Somites
? body sections and opening is called coelom
Neural plate
? disconnects from the dorsal hollow nerve cord
Nervous system
derived from the ectoderm
Neural Crest ?
cells that broken away from the neural plate ? sensory neuron and Schwann cells and adrenal medulla are derived
From Neural Tube ?
brain(w ventricles, hollow), spinal cord, motor neurons forms
Notochord ?
moves around and becomes tissue bwtn.
null
Parturition
? Birth ? 266 days
During Action
- A Band stays the same length
- H ? Zone gets smaller
- I Band gets smaller
- Increase in the overlap of actin and myosin filaments
- Filaments do not become shorter only the Bands become shorter
Filaments do not become shorter only the Bands become shorter
- Contraction
- Control of Contraction
- Whole Muscle Action
- Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types
How does a muscle contract or sarcomere become shorter
Sum of the individual sarcomeres contracting
Sliding Filament Model
- Fibers slide so the area of thin and thick filament overlap
- How
How
- Low Energy Conformation
- Actin?s Role
Low Energy Conformation
- Myosin has completed power stroke ? tilting of the head
- Binding site for ATP
Actin?s Role
Tropomyosin
Sarcolemma
- Muscle cell cell (plasma membrane)
- Has membrane potential
- Has transverse tubules ? T- Tubules
Steps of Action
- Nerve Impluse
- Acetylcholin is released at the synapse
- Depolarization moves down the T- Tubules , triggering the Ca++ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
- Sarcoplasmic reticulum becomes permeable to Ca++ - which diffuses out wards and starts the contraction
- End Contraction
T ? Tubules Contact
- Contact Sarcoplasmic Reticulum ? source of Ca++
- w/ terminal cisternae ? sac like ends that have to get Ca++ in and out of them
ATP needed twice
- Energize myosin head and release myosin from actin
- Ca++/ATPase pump
Acetylcholin is released at the synapse
- Combines with receptors on the muscle fiber
- Depolarizes the sarcolemma
End Contraction
Ca++ /ATPase Pump
Ca++ /ATPase Pump
- Energy requiring
- Calcium is put back
Creatine phosphate
Stores some energy that can be transferred to ATP later on
Rigor Mortis
Rigor of the body becomes stiff, at the point of death sarcomere becomes permeable and release Ca++
How do you get graded responses
- Force generated determined by how many sarcomeres you use
- We only control individual muscle fibers or cells
Motor Units
- Motor neuron to some number of muscle fibers
- Avg. = 150 fibers per neuron
- Eyes are very precise = 6-12 fibers/neuron
- Thighs = >1000 fibers/neuron
Small Contractions
- Only a few motor units
- Muscle Tone some muscle fibers are contracting all the time ? consciously controlled system ? brain is constantly sending messages to at least some cells
Slow Fiber
Type 1 Myosin
Type 1 Myosin
- Not for quick rapid force ? longer period of time
- Specialized for endurance activities such as swimming, long distance running, etc.
- Require a steady supply of oxygen
- Red fibers ? rich with myoglobin ? stores oxygen, enhances rapid diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the muscles
Fast Fibers or White Fibers (Type II x and Type II a myosins)
Type II x myosin? fastest fibers
Type II x myosin? fastest fibers
- Generate a great deal of power but that energy can only last for short period of time
- Activities such as sprinting, weight lifting, etc.
- Most of their energy comes from glycolysis
- With physical activity Type II x fibers change to Type II a
Muscles tire when
- Run out of ATP
- Start losing Ca++ gradient
- Initial Force: fast Fibers
- Later Force: Slow fibers will fatigue
Muscle Fiber
same as muscle tissue
Energy
- Thermodynamics ? we need energy to do work
- 1 st Law ? conservation of energy, can?t be created nor destroyed
- 2 nd Law ? more entropy, energy is lost as heat, we cannot recycle...
- Our efficiency for getting energy from food in cell respiration...
- Closed System system that has no Energy
- Open System ? exchanges energy with its surroundings, we are an...
Hypothalamus
- Hunger center ? judgment that one needs more energy
- Satiety Center ? judgment that one is full
Lowers the appetite
Biosynthesis
Empty stomach
Secretes Ghrelin affects hypothalamus ? source of NPY ? which stimulates hunger
Short Term
After meal
After meal
- Small intestine hormones
- Stretch receptors of the stomach, start to stretch when it becomes full
- Insulin ? negative feedback and lowers the NPY level
Long Term
Good energy availability
Small intestine hormones
- Cholecystokinin (CCK)
- PYY
Good energy availability
- Insulin
- Adipose Tissue
Adipose Tissue
Leptin Hormone
Poor energy availability
- Low insulin
- Adipose Tissue low ? Low leptin hormone
- High NPY ? feel hungry
Biosynthesis
- We need to make things in our body ? comes from the mass you eat
- Such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins
Energy Yield
- Lipids give 9 kcal of Energy per gram
- Protein ? 4 kcal
- Carbohydrates ? 4 kcal
CARBHOHYDRATES
- Monosaccharides ? glucose
- Disaccharides ? sucrose (white table sugar), maltose, lactose
- Polysaccharides
- any excess is stored in adipose molecules
- excess glucose is stored as glycogen in liver/muscle
- Hemicellulose
- Dietary Fibers
- Honey = glucose + fructose
- Sucrose = glucose + fructose
- Maltose = glucose + glucose
LIPIDS
- Fats and Oils
- FATS
- OILS
- HYDROGENATION
- Steroids
Polysaccharides
Cellulose (polymer of glucose)
Cellulose (polymer of glucose)
- Insoluble, fiber rough, helps keep material move in the digestive tract
- Glycogen
Hemicellulose
Soluble fiber, goes through blood clears cholesterol
Dietary Fibers
Adds to the fecal matter, insoluble, feces less time in digestive system, bad things are taken out faster
Fats and Oils
Triglycerides ? READ ABOUT IT pg 51 ? 53
FATS
Saturated fatty acids
Saturated fatty acids
- No double or triple bond between the carbon
- Give linear shape, allows Vander Waals Interaction
- Solid at room temperature
- Animal fat
OILS
Unsaturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acids
- Chain is not straight
- Better for your heart
- Amount of fat affects blood clots ? moves fats around ? not H2O soluble
- Comes from plants
- Limited Vander Waals interactions
- Liquid at room temperature
HYDROGENATION
- Adding hydrogen into fatty acids ? making unsat. fat look like sat. fat
- Partially, fully ? no more triple or double bonds
- Result Trans Fat
Steroids
Lipoproteins
Result Trans Fat
- Worst of the fats
- Bad for health
- Converts cis to trans configuration
Lipoproteins
LDL
Nonpolar, lipids on inside surrounded by lipoproteins
- PROTEINS
- Essential Nutrients
PROTEINS
- 19 different amino acids ? use to make protein
- Protein quality
- Extra is stored as fat
Essential Nutrients
- Refers to items body needs but cannot be produced by the body ? must be gained from diet
- Macromolecules 3 fatty acids, 9 amino acids, no carbs
- Vitamins
- Minerals
Protein quality
- High for animals
- Low for plants
- Need to low protein to get all amino acids
Vitamins
- Organic compounds necessary in small amounts that we can not make ourselves
- Cofactors or coenzymes ? do not need huge quantities, they are not metabolized
- Fat Soluble
- Water Soluble
Minerals
- > 100 mg/day
- Na+, Cl-, K+, Ca++, P
- Trace elements
Fat Soluble
- Vitamin A ? Retinal in eye
- Vitamin D ? bones, Ca++ uptake
- Vitamin E
- Vitamin K ? blood clotting
Water Soluble
- Vitamin C ? 250 Mg, rest leaves through urine
- Vitamin B11
Trace elements
- < 100 mg/day
- Fe, Cu, I, F
Human Digestive System
- Longitudinal, circular, and oblique
- Taking bigger pieces and breaking them down
- Smooth out the food
- From the cells on the mucosa
- Gastric glands
- Goblet cells secrete mucus
- Parietal cell ? gastric gland that secrete...
- Chief Cells ? secrete pepsinogen
- Ulcers ? 80 ? 85% due to infection of bacteria...
Inner circular fiber used to keep food moving in digestion , controlled by the autonomic medulla
Digestive Organs
Longitudinal, circular, and oblique
Rugae ? churning the food
Hepatic Portal Vein
- Makes gall bladder release bile
- Bicarbonates (secretin)
- Lipases (CCK) ? degrades fats
- Pancreatic amylase ? breaks down almost all types of carbs, except cellulose to dissach.
- Proteases
Structure
- One way digestive system
- Basic layers
Basic layers
- Tube with in a tube ? digestive tract
- Muscle layers (2)
Tube with in a tube ? digestive tract
Visceral peritoneum: - loose/dense connective tissue, outside layer
Submucosa
Has capillaries, nerve fibers, capillary bed carries materials out of the digestive system ? sends to blood
Peristalsis
- Using the muscle layer to move the food from the esophagus to the stomach
- Waves of muscular contraction by smooth muscle
Digestive Organs
- Oral cavity ? Mouth
- Esophagus ? Swallowing (deglutition)
- Stomach ? expands and contracts
Mucosa ? inner most layer
Goblet cells in varying quantities, lines digestive tract
Oral cavity ? Mouth
- Food to bolus ? indigestion
- Mastication ? chewing or breaking down of the food to smaller particles
- Tongue ? skeletal muscle ? pushes food down
- Salivary Amylase ? mix in saliva, breaks down starch
- Teeth
Esophagus ? Swallowing (deglutition)
- Reflex, top of esophagus is skeletal muscle then turns into smooth muscle
- Upper Esophageal Sphincter
- Cardiac Sphincter
Teeth
- Incisors and canines ? Rip and Tear Food
- Premolars and Molars ? crush and grind food
Upper Esophageal Sphincter
- Circular ring of muscle that opens and closes
- Allows the passage of food into the esophagus
Stomach ? expands and contracts
- Holds about 1.5 liters, takes 3 ? 4 hours for the meal to get processed (digested)
- Digestion
Lower Esophageal Sphincter
End of the esophagus ? releases food into the stomach
Smooth out the food
? gastric juices?
Chief Cells ? secrete pepsinogen
when in contact with acidic juices HCl + Pepsinogen Pepsin ? which breaks down protein to short polypeptides
Ulcers ? 80 ? 85% due to infection of bacteria that grows in mucus secreting cells of the stomach lining
- Bile from the liver and enzymes from the pancreas are released here to...
- Enzymes produced by the epithelial cells lining D. catalyze final...
- Inner surface lined with finger like projections ? Villi ? increase...
- Proteases ? work on peptide bonds
- Have specialized endocrine
- Enzymes for disaccharides
Storage of food
- Acts like a crop
- Phyloric Sphincter ? at the other end of the stomach ? spurts of acid chyme ? releasing small parts of food to the small intestine
- Gastric Inhibitory Peptide H
Small Intestine
- Humans ? 18 feet long
- A lot of surface area = tennis court
- Diameter is smaller than the large intestine
- Anatomy
Absorption - not too much in the stomach
Only water, alcohol, and caffeine
Chemical Digestion
Crypts of Lieberkunn
Z-line ?
at the ends of a sarcomere, there is a protein layer
Makes gall bladder release bile
- Lipids complexed with bile
- Triglycerides repacked w/ cholesterol
- Made of phospholipids and cholesterol
- Becomes transportable on a watery environment and goes into the lymph system
- ?pancreatic juices?
- Exocrine secretions
LIVER
- Glucose to glycogen
- Amino acids to fatty acids/ urea
- Stores Fe (heavy metals) and vitamins
- Detoxification ? checks for toxic substances, pulls out mercury
Detoxification ? checks for toxic substances, pulls out mercury
Organs assisting with digestion in duodenum
Organs assisting with digestion in duodenum
Liver
Proteases
- Smooth muscle ? inner ring
- Skeletal Muscle ? outer ring ? conscious control
Large Intestine ? ?colon?
- Functions
- Anatomy
Functions
- Re-absorption of water ? chyme to feces
- ? Ileocecal valve? whatever is left in the S.I is passed to the L.I through this
- Absorption of salts
- Excretion of bile pigments
- Escherichia Coli (E.Coli) ? makes vitamin K
- Elimination ? defecation through the rectum to the anus
Anatomy
- No villi or microvilli
- Lots of goblet cells
- Last section of the L.I. ? rectum
Power Stroke
? movement that occurs during contraction of the muscle
A- Zone
width of the myosin filaments
I- Band
only actin length with Z line in the middle
H – Zone
only have myosin – no actin, in the middle – M-line
null
M-Line
myosin filaments
A Band
stays the same length
null
H ? Zone
gets smaller
I Band
gets smaller
null
null
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum ?
source of Ca++
terminal cisternae ?
sac like ends that have to get Ca++ in and out of them
Acetylcholin
is released at the synapse
Red fibers ?
rich with myoglobin ? stores oxygen, enhances rapid diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the muscles
Type II x myosin?
fastest fibers
Thighs
>1000 fibers/neuron
Muscle Tone
some muscle fibers are contracting all the time – consciously controlled system – brain is constantly sending messages to at least some cells
Weight lifting ?
increasing the amount of myofibrils in their inherent myofilaments in the muscles you have
Open System ?
exchanges energy with its surroundings, we are an open system
Initial Force
fast Fibers
Later Force
Slow fibers will fatigue
Aerobic Exercising
facilitates in the increase of oxygen to muscles, increase in vascularization
Hunger center ?
judgment that one needs more energy
Satiety Center ?
judgment that one is full
Ghrelin
affects hypothalamus ? source of NPY ? which stimulates hunger
Closed System
system that has no Energy
Stretch receptors
of the stomach, start to stretch when it becomes full
Insulin ?
negative feedback and lowers the NPY level
Secretes Ghrelin
affects hypothalamus – source of NPY – which stimulates hunger
Leptin
Hormone
Lipids
give 9 kcal of Energy per gram
Protein
? 4 kcal
Carbohydrates
? 4 kcal
Monosaccharides ?
glucose
Disaccharides ?
sucrose (white table sugar), maltose, lactose
Cellulose
(polymer of glucose)
Honey
glucose + fructose
Sucrose
glucose + fructose
Maltose
glucose + glucose
Result
Trans Fat
Macromolecules
3 fatty acids, 9 amino acids, no carbs
1. Visceral peritoneum: -
loose/dense connective tissue, outside layer
Ingestion
we get the food inside
Digestion
breakdown of the food
5. Mucosa ?
inner most layer
Goblet cells
in varying quantities, lines digestive tract
Visceral peritoneum
- loose/dense connective tissue, outside layer
Mastication
? chewing or breaking down of the food to smaller particles
Tongue ?
skeletal muscle ? pushes food down
Salivary Amylase ?
mix in saliva, breaks down starch
Incisors and canines ?
Rip and Tear Food
Premolars and Molars ?
crush and grind food
Cardiac Sphincter
- Lower Esophageal Sphincter
Rugae
? churning the food
Goblet cells
secrete mucus
Parietal cell
? gastric gland that secrete HCl, which breaks down H bond in proteins
Chief Cells
? secrete pepsinogen - when in contact with acidic juices HCl + Pepsinogen = Pepsin ? which breaks down protein to short polypeptides
Ulcers
? 80 ? 85% due to infection of bacteria that grows in mucus secreting cells of the stomach lining
Phyloric Sphincter ?
at the other end of the stomach ? spurts of acid chyme ? releasing small parts of food to the small intestine
Gastric Inhibitory Peptide H
- by the small intestine slows down the release of acid chyme from the stomach ? regulates the speed at which the food is processed
Absorption
- not too much in the stomach
Humans ?
18 feet long
Diameter
is smaller than the large intestine
Duodenum ?
most digestion here, first 10 ? 12 inches of the SI
Jejunum ?
more absorption ? very little digestion
Ileum
? more absorption here
2 Circuits
- Lungs ? blood is oxygenated
- Pulmonary - left side and systemic ? right side
- 2 Pumps side to side
- Heart has two pumps
- Pulmonary circulation ? part of the circulatory system that delivers to and from the lungs for oxygenation
- Systemic circulation ? part of the C.S. that delivers blood to and from the tissues and organs of the body
Human Circulation System
- Closed
- Artery ? takes blood away from the heart, branches into arterioles, which branch into capillaries, which form the capillary bed
- Capillaries coalesce into Veinules which coalesce into Veins ? which bring the blood into the heart
- Blood Vessels - 3 tissue layers
- Veins
- Arteries
- Capillaries ? just tunica intimae
Control of Vertebrate Heart Beat
- Auto- rhythmic ? muscle cells that are self stimulatory
- Leakage of ions causes depolarization required for...
- Intercalated Discs ? allows symmetrical movement of...
- Intrinsic Conduction System ? auto-rhythmic cardiac...
- Sinoatrial Node ??pacemaker? - SA
- Atrioventricular Node - AV
- SA - Atrial muscle fibers (Atria Contracts) ? AV node ?...
- EKG Wave
Blood Vessels - 3 tissue layers
- ? Tunica? - connective tissue on the outside
- Tunica Intimae ? up against blood simple squamous epithelium
- Tunica Media ? smooth muscle
- Tunica Adventia ? outer layer, like visceral peritoneum ? tough outer lining
Veins
Have valves which keep blood moving forward, have very low BP
Arteries
- Have very high BP ? closest to heart
- Very tough, so they have strength
- Control which arterioles blood goes into which capillary bed the blood goes through w/ smooth muscle
Capillaries ? just tunica intimae
- Mostly arranged in capillary beds
- Thinness allows exchange of materials b/w blood and tissues
Control which arterioles blood goes into which capillary bed the blood goes through w/ smooth muscle
Can constrict w/ sphincters (arteries)
Sinoatrial Node ??pacemaker? - SA
- Sets the rhythm of the heart beat
- Gets damaged during a heart attack
Atrioventricular Node - AV
- Located in the right atrium
- Branches into AV Bundles (Bundle of His) Branches into Purkinje Fibers
- Depolarization is passed through these and to the ventricular muscle fibers
Lipases
(CCK) ? degrades fats
Pancreatic amylase
? breaks down almost all types of carbs, except cellulose to dissach.
Ileocecal valve?
whatever is left in the S.I is passed to the L.I through this
Excretion
of bile pigments
Escherichia Coli (E.Coli) ?
makes vitamin K
Elimination
? defecation through the rectum to the anus
Smooth muscle ?
inner ring
Skeletal Muscle ?
outer ring ? conscious control
null
null
Pulmonary circulation
? part of the circulatory system that delivers to and from the lungs for oxygenation
Artery
? takes blood away from the heart, branches into arterioles, which branch into capillaries, which form the capillary bed
Capillaries
coalesce into Veinules which coalesce into Veins ? which bring the blood into the heart
Veinules
which coalesce into Veins ? which bring the blood into the heart
Tunica? -
connective tissue on the outside
Tunica Intimae ?
up against blood simple squamous epithelium
Tunica Media ?
smooth muscle
Tunica Adventia ?
outer layer, like visceral peritoneum ? tough outer lining
Capillaries ?
just tunica intimae
Auto- rhythmic
? muscle cells that are self stimulatory
Intercalated Discs
? allows symmetrical movement of depolarization
Intrinsic Conduction System
? auto-rhythmic cardiac cells that initiate and distribute impulse through the heart
null
null
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