Chemistry Exam 2
Chemistry Chem 1004 10 with Zysmilich at George Washington University - Foggy Bottom Campus
About this deck
By: Lauren Gleason
Created: 2011-04-22
Size: 203 flashcards
Views: 268
Created: 2011-04-22
Size: 203 flashcards
Views: 268
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Composition of Human Body
60 % Water
20% Fats
20% Proteins, Carbohydrates, Calcium & Phosphorus
20% Fats
20% Proteins, Carbohydrates, Calcium & Phosphorus
`Macronutrients
carbohydrates, fats & proteins
provide energy for building materials to produce tissues
fuel biochemical processes in the body
provide energy for building materials to produce tissues
fuel biochemical processes in the body
Malnutrition
diet lacking in the proper mix of nutrients, even if the energy content of the food is adequate
Undernourishment
the daily caloric intake is insufficient to meet the metabolic needs
Nutritional Labels
Calories = energy
Total Fats = saturated & unsaturated
Cholesterol = arteriosclerosis
Total Carbohydrates = mono, di & poly sacchrides
Protein = nitrogen balance phenylketonuria
Total Fats = saturated & unsaturated
Cholesterol = arteriosclerosis
Total Carbohydrates = mono, di & poly sacchrides
Protein = nitrogen balance phenylketonuria
99% of body Mass composed of
11 Elements:
Hydrogen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sodium
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Chlorine
Potassium
Calcium & (P)
Hydrogen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Sodium
Magnesium
Phosphorus
Chlorine
Potassium
Calcium & (P)
Carbohydrates
Compounds with general chemical formula Cx (H2y0)y where x & y are any number: (C6H12O6)
structural function in plant cells (cellulose)
short term energy storage (starch)
Ratio of H to O is 2 to 1
Chemical formula looks like hydrogen & carbon
ex. Glucose: monosaccharides are simple carbohydrates
ring around forms a poly alcohol
the orientation of functional groups is important
structural function in plant cells (cellulose)
short term energy storage (starch)
Ratio of H to O is 2 to 1
Chemical formula looks like hydrogen & carbon
ex. Glucose: monosaccharides are simple carbohydrates
ring around forms a poly alcohol
the orientation of functional groups is important
Glucose
A simple sugar (monosaccharide) and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as a source of energy and a metabolic intermediate. One of the main proponents of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration.
Alpha glucose is a specific isomer of glucose. All glucose molecules have 6 carbon atoms, and are single monosaccharides. a form of glucose that is in a ring shape. Difference between alpha and beta glucose is the orientation of the last C-OH-H group
If you put alpha glucose in water (sugar is very water soluble) the OH group switches position forming Beta-Glucose
Reactions are reversible
If you put alpha glucose in water (sugar is very water soluble) the OH group switches position forming Beta-Glucose
Reactions are reversible
A specific isomer of glucose. All glucose molecules have 6 carbon atoms & are single monosaccharides. In Beta-Glucose, the last OH-C-H are switched, the Hydrogen pointing downwards and the OH pointing upwards. If you put beta glucose in water, it becomes Alpha-Glucose. Reactions are reversible.
Alpha-Glucose & Beta-Glucose
Are isomers but orientation of functional group is different, therefore they are different molecules. Monosaccharides can undergo condensation reactions among themselves & form:
dimers (disaccharides, meaning two)
oligomers (oligisacchardies, short polymers)
polymers (polysaccharides, meaning many)
only the molecule directly attached to the oxygen & carbon can switch
In A & B glucose, the first H-C-OH group (left), no matter orientation, can not switch positions
dimers (disaccharides, meaning two)
oligomers (oligisacchardies, short polymers)
polymers (polysaccharides, meaning many)
only the molecule directly attached to the oxygen & carbon can switch
In A & B glucose, the first H-C-OH group (left), no matter orientation, can not switch positions
A simple monosaccharide
A white solid that dissolves in water, most water soluble of all the sugars.
A component of sucrose
A white solid that dissolves in water, most water soluble of all the sugars.
A component of sucrose
How Dimers are formed
when two structurally similar sub-units, called monomers join bonds (either weak or strong). Molecular dimers are often formed by the reaction of two identical compounds.
A white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste
The molecule is a disaccharide derived from glucose and fructose with the molecular formula C12H22O1
Sucrose is formed when an Alpha Glucose links with a fructose. The two HO bonds form an Alpha linkage centered around the Oxygen.
The molecule is a disaccharide derived from glucose and fructose with the molecular formula C12H22O1
Sucrose is formed when an Alpha Glucose links with a fructose. The two HO bonds form an Alpha linkage centered around the Oxygen.
Alpha linkage occurs where the hydroxyl group linked to the 4th Carbon atom bridge over to another monosaccharide. The OH-OH becomes water and the remaining oxygen forms the bridge between the molecules. Humans can digest molecules with alpha linkages but not those with beta linkages.
Visually, the difference between an alpha and beta linkage, is the orientation. Alpha linkages are oriented downwards.
Visually, the difference between an alpha and beta linkage, is the orientation. Alpha linkages are oriented downwards.
Lactose is a disaccharide sugar that is found most notably in milk and is formed from galactose and glucose. Lactose is a disaccharide derived from the condensation of galactose and glucose, which form a Beta-linkage. Lactose is formed when Beta-Galactose joins with Alpha-Galactose. In doing so, they form beta linkages. Visually, beta linkages are oriented on a diagonal, centered around an Oxygen. Humans can not digest molecules with beta linkages, leading to lactose intolerance.
The energy needed to power biochemical reactions in cells is produced by burning carbohydrates
In the form of starch: a very long polymer of a-glucose monomers.
Just as proteins are long chains of polymers, similarly starch is a polysaccharides a long chain of mono saccharides of a polymer of glucose molecules in the Alpha configuration
Just as proteins are long chains of polymers, similarly starch is a polysaccharides a long chain of mono saccharides of a polymer of glucose molecules in the Alpha configuration
Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
Many glucose molecules joined together into a long molecule
Starch
glucose in the alpha form
energy storage
humans digest starch
if it doesn't get digested, it doesn't give you energy
energy storage
humans digest starch
if it doesn't get digested, it doesn't give you energy
glucose in the beta form
structural function (rigidity of plant cell walls)
humans cannot digest cellulose
Humans lack the enzyme to break beta-linkages
it
structural function (rigidity of plant cell walls)
humans cannot digest cellulose
Humans lack the enzyme to break beta-linkages
it
Lactose Intolerance
Lactose is formed via a Beta-Linkage
beta-linkage between glucose & galactose can't be enzymatically broken (lack of lactase), broken down by intestinal bacteria generating gases & lactic acid
Over 80% of world is lactose intolerant
Humans have lactase enzyme that breaks B-linkages when they are babies, however if you stop consuming milk, your body stops producing lactase
beta-linkage between glucose & galactose can't be enzymatically broken (lack of lactase), broken down by intestinal bacteria generating gases & lactic acid
Over 80% of world is lactose intolerant
Humans have lactase enzyme that breaks B-linkages when they are babies, however if you stop consuming milk, your body stops producing lactase
Types of Starch
Amylose, found in plant cells - single, linear chain
Amylopectin, found also in plants - linear chain with few branches
Glycogen found in animals - chains are short & branched; accumulates in muscle & liver
Amylopectin, found also in plants - linear chain with few branches
Glycogen found in animals - chains are short & branched; accumulates in muscle & liver
Fats & Oils
Greasy, slippery, soft & low-melting (if solid), water soluble
Fats are solid at room temperature
Oils are liquid at room temperature
Fats used to store long term energy
if you do not burn them they stay stored
Fats are solid at room temperature
Oils are liquid at room temperature
Fats used to store long term energy
if you do not burn them they stay stored
an ester derived from glycerol and three fatty acids.
formed by combining glycerol with three molecules of fatty acid. The glycerol molecule has three hydroxyl (HO-) groups. Each fatty acid has a carboxyl group (COOH). In triglycerides, the hydroxyl groups of the glycerol join the carboxyl groups of the fatty acid to form ester bonds
formed by combining glycerol with three molecules of fatty acid. The glycerol molecule has three hydroxyl (HO-) groups. Each fatty acid has a carboxyl group (COOH). In triglycerides, the hydroxyl groups of the glycerol join the carboxyl groups of the fatty acid to form ester bonds
is a simple polyol compound. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous liquid that is widely used in pharmaceutical formulations. Glycerol has three hydrophilic hydroxyl groups that are responsible for its solubility in water and its hygroscopic nature. The glycerol backbone is central to all lipids known as triglycerides. Glycerol is sweet-tasting and of low toxicity.
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a carboxylic acid with a long unbranched aliphatic tail (chain), which is either saturated or unsaturated. Most naturally occurring fatty acids have a chain of an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 28. Fatty acids are usually derived from triglycerides or phospholipids. When they are not attached to other molecules, they are known as "free" fatty acids.
fat that consists of triglycerides containing only saturated fatty acids. Saturated fatty acids have no double bonds between the individual carbon atoms of the fatty acid chain. That is, the chain of carbon atoms is fully "saturated" with hydrogen atoms.
saturated fat can not take on more hydrogen
saturated fat can not take on more hydrogen
a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least 1 double bond w/in the fatty acid chain. A fat molecule is monounsaturated if it contains 1 double bond, and polyunsaturated if it contains more than 1 double bond. Where double bonds are formed, hydrogen atoms are eliminated. a saturated fat has no double bonds, has the maximum # of hydrogens bonded to the carbons, & is "saturated" w/ hydrogen atoms. an unsaturated fat molecule contains somewhat less energy
can accept more H double links/bonds
can accept more H double links/bonds
Melting Point of Saturated & Unsaturated Fatty Acids
Saturated Fatty Acids: Melting point increases as Carbon Atoms per molecule increases (more chains)
Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Melting point decreases as you increase the number of double bonds in chain
Unsaturated Fatty Acids: Melting point decreases as you increase the number of double bonds in chain
unsaturated fat with trans-isomer (E-isomer) fatty acid(s). Because the term refers to the configuration of a double carbon-carbon bond, trans fats may be monounsaturated or polyunsaturated but never saturated. Unsaturated fat is a fat molecule containing one or more double bonds between the carbon atoms. In the trans arrangement, the chains are on opposite sides of the double bond & the chain is straight.
a "cease" fatty acid come from natural food
Trans fat comes from hydrogenated food
a "cease" fatty acid come from natural food
Trans fat comes from hydrogenated food
Digestion
breaks down protein (proteases enzymes) into amino acids (receptor, enzymes, antibodies) by breaking amide bonds.
breaks down starch (amylases) into sugars (only digesting the Alpha linkages)
breaks down fats/triglycerides (lipases) into glycerol and fatty acids
breaks down starch (amylases) into sugars (only digesting the Alpha linkages)
breaks down fats/triglycerides (lipases) into glycerol and fatty acids
Proteins
a chain of amino acids that are used to manufacture hair, skin, muscle, transport oxygen, nutrients & minerals, enzymes, hormones
Also the principal source of Nitrogen
The body doesn't store proteins, nitrogen balance remains constant
nitrogen excreted (primarily as urea) = Nitrogen ingested
Growing children, pregnant women have a positive nitrogen balance
Starvation is a negative nitrogen balance
Also the principal source of Nitrogen
The body doesn't store proteins, nitrogen balance remains constant
nitrogen excreted (primarily as urea) = Nitrogen ingested
Growing children, pregnant women have a positive nitrogen balance
Starvation is a negative nitrogen balance
Essential Amino Acids
Proteins are composed of 20 different amino acids
11 can be synthesized in our body
9 are essential and must be ingested because the body can not make it
Beef, fish & poultry contain all the essential amino acids
Vegetarians need the right combination of complementary foods
11 can be synthesized in our body
9 are essential and must be ingested because the body can not make it
Beef, fish & poultry contain all the essential amino acids
Vegetarians need the right combination of complementary foods
a dipeptide composed of an aspartic acid + Phenylalanine (amino acid)
humans lack the enzyme to break this down, forming Tyrosine
once Tyrosine accumulates it becomes Phenylpyruvic Acid, which causes severe mental retardation, newborns are tested for it in their urine
symptoms in children are seizures, nausea, vomiting, self-injurious behavior, hyperactivity
effects on fetus, microphaly, heart disease
treatment reduces but doesn't eliminate in take of phenylaline
humans lack the enzyme to break this down, forming Tyrosine
once Tyrosine accumulates it becomes Phenylpyruvic Acid, which causes severe mental retardation, newborns are tested for it in their urine
symptoms in children are seizures, nausea, vomiting, self-injurious behavior, hyperactivity
effects on fetus, microphaly, heart disease
treatment reduces but doesn't eliminate in take of phenylaline
Energy - Metabolism
Glucosamine, Starch - In the body occurs in small steps involving enzymes, enzyme regulators & hormones - carbon dioxide & water + energy (used for : muscular motion, run chemical reactions, produce ion gradient)
each heartbeat uses 4 cal of energy
Carbohydrates - 4 Kcal/gram [Fats - 9 Kcal/gram] --> 1 Kcal = 1000 cal = 1 Cal
Children need a proportionally larger energy intake. More susceptible to undernourishment & malnutrition
each heartbeat uses 4 cal of energy
Carbohydrates - 4 Kcal/gram [Fats - 9 Kcal/gram] --> 1 Kcal = 1000 cal = 1 Cal
Children need a proportionally larger energy intake. More susceptible to undernourishment & malnutrition
Basal Metabolism Rate (BMR)
Minimum amount of energy required to support basic body functions:
heartbeat, inhaling & exhaling, brain activity, function of major organs & body temperature [ ~ 1 Cal/(kg hr)]
Ex. 20 year old female, 55kg
Daily BMR = 1 Cal/(kg hr) x 55 kg x 24hr/day = 1300 Cal/day
2200 Cal/day ---> 59% of the energy derived form food goes just to keep the body systems going
Where does the remaining 41% go?
Daily Activities
heartbeat, inhaling & exhaling, brain activity, function of major organs & body temperature [ ~ 1 Cal/(kg hr)]
Ex. 20 year old female, 55kg
Daily BMR = 1 Cal/(kg hr) x 55 kg x 24hr/day = 1300 Cal/day
2200 Cal/day ---> 59% of the energy derived form food goes just to keep the body systems going
Where does the remaining 41% go?
Daily Activities
Vitamins
Essential in the diet
Required in small amounts
Organic molecules
Wide range of physiological functinos
Classification of vitamins :
Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K
Water soluble: All others (B1, B6, B12, C, etc)
The importance of vitamins was discovered by the effect of diets lacking them. Between 1500 & 1700, sailors used to suffer from scurvy (break down of collagen tissue) caused by deficiency of vitamin C (keeps bones)
By 1800 the British Navy req. limes as part of the diet of sailor (called limies)
Required in small amounts
Organic molecules
Wide range of physiological functinos
Classification of vitamins :
Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K
Water soluble: All others (B1, B6, B12, C, etc)
The importance of vitamins was discovered by the effect of diets lacking them. Between 1500 & 1700, sailors used to suffer from scurvy (break down of collagen tissue) caused by deficiency of vitamin C (keeps bones)
By 1800 the British Navy req. limes as part of the diet of sailor (called limies)
Vitamins - A & B6
A- Fat soluble because most of the molecule is composed of hydrogen & Carbon, not mix w/ water
Vitamin A (retinol), needed for reproduction, growth, cell maturation & differentiation, night & color vision
B6- (pyridoxine)
Required for the activity of more than 100 different enzymes (coenzyme) involved in metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, & fat
Critical in the formation of hemoglobin.
Needed for the synthesis of neurotransmitters
Vitamin A (retinol), needed for reproduction, growth, cell maturation & differentiation, night & color vision
B6- (pyridoxine)
Required for the activity of more than 100 different enzymes (coenzyme) involved in metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, & fat
Critical in the formation of hemoglobin.
Needed for the synthesis of neurotransmitters
Vitamins - C
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Wide variety of functions
Reducing agent (donates electrons in reactions)
Important in the formation of collagen
D- (calciferol)
Regulates blood calcium
Cell differentiation & function
can not be stored in body, too much will pass through urine
fat soluble an excess can dissolve the phospholipid bi-layers of cell (can poision you)
fat soluble
Wide variety of functions
Reducing agent (donates electrons in reactions)
Important in the formation of collagen
D- (calciferol)
Regulates blood calcium
Cell differentiation & function
can not be stored in body, too much will pass through urine
fat soluble an excess can dissolve the phospholipid bi-layers of cell (can poision you)
fat soluble
Optical Isomer
right functional groups, right orientation
different carbocylic & aldehyde groups
different carbocylic & aldehyde groups
Steroids
Natural: Structural cell components, metabolic regulators, hormones, etc.
Synthetic: drugs for birth control, abortion & bodybuilding
Estradiol & testosterone : regulation of secondary sexual characteristics
Progesterone: Reproduction & control of the reproductive cycle
Cortisol: Regulation of metabolism
Cholic acid: Digestion of fat
Cholesterol: Cell membrane component
Synthetic: drugs for birth control, abortion & bodybuilding
Estradiol & testosterone : regulation of secondary sexual characteristics
Progesterone: Reproduction & control of the reproductive cycle
Cortisol: Regulation of metabolism
Cholic acid: Digestion of fat
Cholesterol: Cell membrane component
a waxy steroid of fat that is manufactured in the liver or intestines to produce hormones and cell membranes and transported in the blood plasma
can make many hormones from cholesterol
nucleus remains the same
can make many hormones from cholesterol
nucleus remains the same
Cholesterol
American Heart Association (AHA) Maximum Daily intake recommended 300 mg
Excess of cholesterol can form waxy deposits (plague) causing arteries to narrow, which may elevate blood pressure & increase the risk of heart disease
Most of body's cholesterol is synthesized by the body
liver uses saturated fatty acids to create cholesterol
Excess of cholesterol can form waxy deposits (plague) causing arteries to narrow, which may elevate blood pressure & increase the risk of heart disease
Most of body's cholesterol is synthesized by the body
liver uses saturated fatty acids to create cholesterol
"Good" Cholesterol & "Bad" Cholesterol
Good Cholesterol is bound to high density lipproteins (HDL)
lipoproteins: fat protein complexes. Transport cholesterol in blood.
LDL is more likely to deposit cholesterol in blood vessels (arteriosclerosis)
HDL can remove cholesterol from blood vessels & carry it to the liver
lipoproteins: fat protein complexes. Transport cholesterol in blood.
LDL is more likely to deposit cholesterol in blood vessels (arteriosclerosis)
HDL can remove cholesterol from blood vessels & carry it to the liver
Drugs to treat cholesterol build-up
Statins:
-inhabit enzymes which produce cholesterol
-liver needs to use the cholesterol from blood
boost protection from heart attack
-inhabit enzymes which produce cholesterol
-liver needs to use the cholesterol from blood
boost protection from heart attack
Structure of Cholesterols
Estradiol (female sex hormone)
Testosterone (male sex hormone)
Cortisone (Metabolic regulator)
Progesterone (Pregnancy hormone)
Same structural backbone, different functional groups
Testosterone (male sex hormone)
Cortisone (Metabolic regulator)
Progesterone (Pregnancy hormone)
Same structural backbone, different functional groups
Sex Hormones
Estrogens: female sex hormones
Androgens: male sex hormones
Examples:
Testosterone (Male Sex Hormone)
Progesterone (Pregnancy hormone)
Development and maintenance of the genitals & secondary sex characteristics: hairiness of the body & face, muscle size, low pitch of the male's voice, development of breasts & menstruation in female
Hormones are produced in very small quantities
Androgens: male sex hormones
Examples:
Testosterone (Male Sex Hormone)
Progesterone (Pregnancy hormone)
Development and maintenance of the genitals & secondary sex characteristics: hairiness of the body & face, muscle size, low pitch of the male's voice, development of breasts & menstruation in female
Hormones are produced in very small quantities
Male Sex Hormones
At puberty, changes in the brain result in the secretion of gonadotrophic hormone, which stimulates the testes to produce testosterone
Testosterone triggers:
hair growth
enlargement of penis & prostate gland
development of testes & initiation of sperm production
deeping voice pitch
body muscle development
Testosterone triggers:
hair growth
enlargement of penis & prostate gland
development of testes & initiation of sperm production
deeping voice pitch
body muscle development
Anabolic steroids
synthetic steroidal hormones (testosterone-like) used to stimulate muscle & bone growth
initially developed to help patients w/ debilitating illnesses to regain muscle
increased risk of heart attack, strokes, & liver problems
breast development & genital shrinking in men, masculinization of female body, acne & hair loss in both sexes
initially developed to help patients w/ debilitating illnesses to regain muscle
increased risk of heart attack, strokes, & liver problems
breast development & genital shrinking in men, masculinization of female body, acne & hair loss in both sexes
Female Sex Hormones
Estrogens (Estradiol) regulates the menstrual cycle
Progestins (Progesterone) prepare the uterus to receive fertilized egg & helps maintain pregnancy once it has begun
The level of sex hormones in the blood is controlled by the brain
Two brain hormones, FSH & LH, promote the production of sex hormones by the ovaries & testes
As the amount of sex hormone increases, it turns off the production of FSH & LH,, keeping levels of sex hormone roughly constant
Progestins (Progesterone) prepare the uterus to receive fertilized egg & helps maintain pregnancy once it has begun
The level of sex hormones in the blood is controlled by the brain
Two brain hormones, FSH & LH, promote the production of sex hormones by the ovaries & testes
As the amount of sex hormone increases, it turns off the production of FSH & LH,, keeping levels of sex hormone roughly constant
Produced in the female ovaries when fertilization occurs.
Blocks the release of hormones that stimulate ovulation, ovulation during pregnancy could lead to serious complications
Prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized egg and prevents the uterus from contracting before the baby is ready to be born
Patients injected with progesterone displayed enhanced fertility
Progesterone was expensive, not effective when administered orally, and caused serious side effects
Blocks the release of hormones that stimulate ovulation, ovulation during pregnancy could lead to serious complications
Prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized egg and prevents the uterus from contracting before the baby is ready to be born
Patients injected with progesterone displayed enhanced fertility
Progesterone was expensive, not effective when administered orally, and caused serious side effects
Norethnodrel
a progesterone agonist
Norethynodrel is tightly held on the receptor site, preventing its rapid breakdown by the liver & permitting its oral administration
Active ingredient of Enovid, the first commercially available oral contraceptive
visually looks like a progesterone hormone plus an Acid group
a progesterone agonist
Norethynodrel is tightly held on the receptor site, preventing its rapid breakdown by the liver & permitting its oral administration
Active ingredient of Enovid, the first commercially available oral contraceptive
visually looks like a progesterone hormone plus an Acid group
Mechanism for the action of a steroid contraceptive
Ovulation in non-pregnant women:
Pituitary gland --> hormone release --> Ovaries Stimulated --> Ovulation Occurs
Inhibition of ovulation in pregnant women:
Pituitary gland --> no hormone release --> Ovaries NOT stimulated ---> No Ovulation
Inhibition of ovulation in non-pregnant women using synthetic progestin:
Pituitary gland --> Hormone release blocked by synthetic progestin --> Ovaries not stimulated --> No ovulation
Pituitary gland --> hormone release --> Ovaries Stimulated --> Ovulation Occurs
Inhibition of ovulation in pregnant women:
Pituitary gland --> no hormone release --> Ovaries NOT stimulated ---> No Ovulation
Inhibition of ovulation in non-pregnant women using synthetic progestin:
Pituitary gland --> Hormone release blocked by synthetic progestin --> Ovaries not stimulated --> No ovulation
Mifepristone or RU-486: antagonist for progesterone
named Plan B
Progesterone activity is essential for implantation of the embryo in uterine cells: when the activity of progesterone is blacked, the developing embryo is spontaneously aborted
named Plan B
Progesterone activity is essential for implantation of the embryo in uterine cells: when the activity of progesterone is blacked, the developing embryo is spontaneously aborted
Modern Pregnancy Tests: "sandwich assays"
Still based on measuring the amount of hCG present in urine, but they do so directly, without the need of an animal intermediary to serve as a test subject
Sandwich assays use two or more animal antibodies (Protective biological agents [composed of proteins] generated by the body's immune system in response to infection) raised against different sits on hCG*
*hCG: human chorionic gondatropin
Sandwich assays use two or more animal antibodies (Protective biological agents [composed of proteins] generated by the body's immune system in response to infection) raised against different sits on hCG*
*hCG: human chorionic gondatropin
Disposable plastic device with an absorbent stem which is placed in flow of urine or an opening/window in the plastic into which drops of urine are placed
urine moves through the plastic device.
dev. shielded by plastic the hCG (if present) attaches to the tracer or liquid phase antibody (Y-shaped in the figure) w a blue, red or gold color label
hCG tracer comple continue to move through the absorbent material inside the device (nitrocellulose membrane) to an opening or window in the plastic
urine moves through the plastic device.
dev. shielded by plastic the hCG (if present) attaches to the tracer or liquid phase antibody (Y-shaped in the figure) w a blue, red or gold color label
hCG tracer comple continue to move through the absorbent material inside the device (nitrocellulose membrane) to an opening or window in the plastic
At this point the capture or solid phase antibody (U-shaped in the figure) is anchored
It is transluscent & is immobilized in a circular or line shape
The capture or solid phase antibody then binds the hCG, forming a sandwich or bridge with the tracer antibody & the dye. A blue, red or gold line or circle appears, indicating that the sandwich or bridge is formed & the presence of hCG
This type of assay is qualitative (yes or no) & cannot be used to measure the actual levels of hCG
It is transluscent & is immobilized in a circular or line shape
The capture or solid phase antibody then binds the hCG, forming a sandwich or bridge with the tracer antibody & the dye. A blue, red or gold line or circle appears, indicating that the sandwich or bridge is formed & the presence of hCG
This type of assay is qualitative (yes or no) & cannot be used to measure the actual levels of hCG
A second capture antibody (diamond-shaped) which binds to the tracer antibody functions as a control
The Brain
the brain is made up of billions of nerve cells (neurons) that communicate with each other using electrical & chemical signals
Reactive Depression
Reaction to a particular situation. Lasts only a few days or weeks.
Lasts months or years
Patient becomes apathetic, unable to function socially, isolated
Speech & body movements become slowed. Loss of appetite & sleeping problems
Discovery of antidepressant drugs: by accident in France in 1952
Imipramine (Tofranil, Praminil)
tricylic antidepressant
when given to schizophrenic patients they became agitated
made depressed patients feel better
Patient becomes apathetic, unable to function socially, isolated
Speech & body movements become slowed. Loss of appetite & sleeping problems
Discovery of antidepressant drugs: by accident in France in 1952
Imipramine (Tofranil, Praminil)
tricylic antidepressant
when given to schizophrenic patients they became agitated
made depressed patients feel better
What causes depression?
Not completely understood
First clue came from reserpine, a drug to reduce blood pressure
Reserpine disrupts the vesicles that store the neurotransmitter Norepinephrine (NE)
Some patients become depressed & even suicidal
First clue came from reserpine, a drug to reduce blood pressure
Reserpine disrupts the vesicles that store the neurotransmitter Norepinephrine (NE)
Some patients become depressed & even suicidal
How do anti-depressants work?
SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants. Antidepressants, such as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, or SSRIs, and tricyclic antidepressants, work by slowing or blocking the sending neuron from taking back the released serotonin. In that way, more of this chemical is available in the synapse. The more of this neurotransmitter that is available, the more likely the message is received, and depression is reduced.
Other amine transmitters involved in the control of mood are Dopamine & 5-Hydroxytryptamine (5HT) Serotonin
Tricyclic antidepressants
block the uptake of neurotransmitters, mainly NE
amoxapine, imipramine
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
Inhibit the uptake of serotonin
Prozac, Zoloft, Celexa
block the uptake of neurotransmitters, mainly NE
amoxapine, imipramine
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)
Inhibit the uptake of serotonin
Prozac, Zoloft, Celexa
Inhibit the monoamine oxidase enzyme
Nardik, Parnate
Nardik, Parnate
introduced in the USA in 1987
by 1989 the costs of prescribing Prozac exceeded that of all antidepressants in the previous two years
not only relieves depression, but also add a general "feel-good factor"
even healthy, non-depressed people have been using Prozac
relatively safe, even in large doses
might cause, headaches, insomnia & weight loss
some decrease in sexual drive
by 1989 the costs of prescribing Prozac exceeded that of all antidepressants in the previous two years
not only relieves depression, but also add a general "feel-good factor"
even healthy, non-depressed people have been using Prozac
relatively safe, even in large doses
might cause, headaches, insomnia & weight loss
some decrease in sexual drive
Side Effects of antidepressant drugs
Tryciclics
Dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation
Priapims: persistent penile erection
sedation & drowsiness
low blood pressure (risk of fainting)
MAO inhibitors (phenelzine, tranylcypromine)
Reduce blood pressure
"Cheese reaction" dairy products & other food products contain amines that are broken down by MAO: avocados, beer, chocolate
if MAO is blocked the amines from food can accumulate in the blood, causing a huge increase in blood pressure & bleeding into the brain
Dry mouth, blurred vision, constipation
Priapims: persistent penile erection
sedation & drowsiness
low blood pressure (risk of fainting)
MAO inhibitors (phenelzine, tranylcypromine)
Reduce blood pressure
"Cheese reaction" dairy products & other food products contain amines that are broken down by MAO: avocados, beer, chocolate
if MAO is blocked the amines from food can accumulate in the blood, causing a huge increase in blood pressure & bleeding into the brain
Treatment for patients who do not respond to drugs
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
Four to five sessions of electroshock
Slight loss of short term memory
Depression disappears one or two weeks after treatment & effects lasts for years
Four to five sessions of electroshock
Slight loss of short term memory
Depression disappears one or two weeks after treatment & effects lasts for years
Bi-polar or Manic Depression
Sudden changes in mood
Lithium (Li+) is used to control manic depression
Many side effects:
the amount of lithium administrated needs to be carefully controlled (tremor, blurred vision, vomiting, weakness, drowsiness, chan ge in the thyroid & adrenal glands)
Lithium (Li+) is used to control manic depression
Many side effects:
the amount of lithium administrated needs to be carefully controlled (tremor, blurred vision, vomiting, weakness, drowsiness, chan ge in the thyroid & adrenal glands)
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)
Treated with antidepressant drugs (SSRIs)
Phobias
Intense, irrational fears
produce profound, desperate anxiety or panic
treated with antidepressant drugs
produce profound, desperate anxiety or panic
treated with antidepressant drugs
Pain
pain produces depression which in turn increases the intensity of pain
treating depression helps in treating pain
treating depression helps in treating pain
Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
(a.k.a postviral fatigue syndrome, Royal Free disease, myalgic encephalomyelitis, yuppie flu)
severe fatiuge, intense muscle pain & depression
Some believe it can be caused by an infection, others argue is entirely psychological
Antidepressant drugs are very effective, which suggests a major psychiatric component
severe fatiuge, intense muscle pain & depression
Some believe it can be caused by an infection, others argue is entirely psychological
Antidepressant drugs are very effective, which suggests a major psychiatric component
Natural Rewards
food, water, sex & nurturing
allow organism to feel pleasure when eating, drinking, procreating & being nurtured
Pleasurable feelings reinforce the behavior so that it will be repeated
These behaviors are required for the survival of the species
The main nervous reward pathway in the brain uses dopamine as a neurotransmitter
The activity of dopamine is essential for the reward experience
Addictive drugs activate reward system by increasing dopamine
allow organism to feel pleasure when eating, drinking, procreating & being nurtured
Pleasurable feelings reinforce the behavior so that it will be repeated
These behaviors are required for the survival of the species
The main nervous reward pathway in the brain uses dopamine as a neurotransmitter
The activity of dopamine is essential for the reward experience
Addictive drugs activate reward system by increasing dopamine
introduced in Europe as a medicine in early 1800s
ingredient in coca-cola
when a person snorts, smokes or injects cocaine, it travels to the brain via the bloodstream
it reaches all areas of the brain, but its euphoric effects are mediated in those areas associated with the reward pathway
cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake transporters
results in addiction
compulsive behavior when faced with negative consequences
Cocaine produces an increase in the amounts of dopamine reaching the receptors
ingredient in coca-cola
when a person snorts, smokes or injects cocaine, it travels to the brain via the bloodstream
it reaches all areas of the brain, but its euphoric effects are mediated in those areas associated with the reward pathway
cocaine blocks dopamine reuptake transporters
results in addiction
compulsive behavior when faced with negative consequences
Cocaine produces an increase in the amounts of dopamine reaching the receptors
dopamine
any activity resulting in pleasure
cocaine block receptors, increasing dopamine in body/synapse
cocaine block receptors, increasing dopamine in body/synapse
Tolerance
brain becomes used to it & decreases the number of dopamine receptors on them (surface) --> down regulation
higher dose is needed to feel the same amount of pleasure
dependence & withdrawal syndrome
Cocaine blocks receptors, this results in a build up of dopamine in the synapse
in turn, this causes a continuous stimulation of receiving neurons, inducing feeling of euphoria, confidence, optimism, increased self-esteem & sex drive
higher dose is needed to feel the same amount of pleasure
dependence & withdrawal syndrome
Cocaine blocks receptors, this results in a build up of dopamine in the synapse
in turn, this causes a continuous stimulation of receiving neurons, inducing feeling of euphoria, confidence, optimism, increased self-esteem & sex drive
Addiction
A state in which an organism engages in a compulsive behavior, even when faced with negative consequences
Dependence
Develops when the neurons adapt to the repeated drug exposure & only function normally in the presence of the drug
When the subjects stop taking the drug suddenly, the cells are "caught napping" with too few receptors for the normal transmitter or hormone
Physiologic reactions: withdrawal -- intense craving for more drug, extreme tiredness, apathy, depression
When the subjects stop taking the drug suddenly, the cells are "caught napping" with too few receptors for the normal transmitter or hormone
Physiologic reactions: withdrawal -- intense craving for more drug, extreme tiredness, apathy, depression
Cocaine is a base, thus, it reacts with acids, such as hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Cocaine + HCl -------> Cocaine H+ Cl-
Free base cocaine hydrochloride
(Crack)
When cocaine is processed to form the free base, it can be smoked
Heating the hydrochloride salt form of cocaine will destroy it
The free base can be volatilized at high temperature with out any destruction of the compound
Smoking gets the drug to the brain more quickly than does snorting
[cocaine pictured]
Cocaine + HCl -------> Cocaine H+ Cl-
Free base cocaine hydrochloride
(Crack)
When cocaine is processed to form the free base, it can be smoked
Heating the hydrochloride salt form of cocaine will destroy it
The free base can be volatilized at high temperature with out any destruction of the compound
Smoking gets the drug to the brain more quickly than does snorting
[cocaine pictured]
.jpg)
Time between taking the drug & the positive reinforcing or rewarding effects that are produced can determine the likelihood of abuse
The faster a drug with addictive liability reaches the brain, the more likely it will be abused
cocaine is the ammonium salt of the amine group
high melting point, boiling point
less addictive than crack & more pure
Crack is the free base of the amine group
less pure, low melting point, low boiling point
decreased time to brain...increase addictiveness
[crack pic]
The faster a drug with addictive liability reaches the brain, the more likely it will be abused
cocaine is the ammonium salt of the amine group
high melting point, boiling point
less addictive than crack & more pure
Crack is the free base of the amine group
less pure, low melting point, low boiling point
decreased time to brain...increase addictiveness
[crack pic]
Methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine, MDMA (I)
composed of methyline group and an amphetamine basic group
Non-Addictive, does not interfere with neurotransmitter production
an enhanced anti-dep. drug
MDMA increases the release of serotonin in the brain
great energy
self-confidence
empathy between individuals
increase sensitivity with sounds & feeling
first used by psychologists
Long term: produces muscle tension & pain, especially around the mouth (teeth grinding)
Non-Addictive, does not interfere with neurotransmitter production
an enhanced anti-dep. drug
MDMA increases the release of serotonin in the brain
great energy
self-confidence
empathy between individuals
increase sensitivity with sounds & feeling
first used by psychologists
Long term: produces muscle tension & pain, especially around the mouth (teeth grinding)
Methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine, MDMA (II)
loss of concentration, irritability & depression, panic attacks, hallucinations in repeated users
Death, hyperthermia (& dehydration due to alcohol consumption) : rise in body temperature disrupts normal functioning of the heart & brain
People who have died after taking Ectasy have collapsed with body temperatures
water intoxication. MDMA slows the kidneys, blood becomes diluted, blood cells swell & die, same mechanism of death as drowning
side effects are related to ceratonin
Death, hyperthermia (& dehydration due to alcohol consumption) : rise in body temperature disrupts normal functioning of the heart & brain
People who have died after taking Ectasy have collapsed with body temperatures
water intoxication. MDMA slows the kidneys, blood becomes diluted, blood cells swell & die, same mechanism of death as drowning
side effects are related to ceratonin
K, Special K
Meth, Crystal, Speed
Ritalin
Scientists know the least about THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol)
THC binds to THC receptors on the neighboring terminal & sends this sends a signal to the dopamine terminal to release more dopamine
THC reduces inflammation by blocking the production of prostaglandins
Same effect as aspirin, but 20 times more active
THC works as an anti-asthma drug by lowering the production of leukotrienes, which produce a severe contraction of the airways in an asthma attack
THC binds to THC receptors on the neighboring terminal & sends this sends a signal to the dopamine terminal to release more dopamine
THC reduces inflammation by blocking the production of prostaglandins
Same effect as aspirin, but 20 times more active
THC works as an anti-asthma drug by lowering the production of leukotrienes, which produce a severe contraction of the airways in an asthma attack
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
mainly found in the cell nucleus
very large molecules
double stranded
store genetic information
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
found all over; in the nucleus & in the cytoplasm of a cell
large molecules but small compared to DNA
single stranded (in general-one chain of polymers)
involved in protein synthesis
monomers that make up nucleic acids are very complex
mainly found in the cell nucleus
very large molecules
double stranded
store genetic information
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
found all over; in the nucleus & in the cytoplasm of a cell
large molecules but small compared to DNA
single stranded (in general-one chain of polymers)
involved in protein synthesis
monomers that make up nucleic acids are very complex
In RNA, deoxyribose is replaced by ribose and Thymine by Uracil (U)
RNA is not as stable as DNA
DNA is missing an OH group, because of this missing methane group (OH), uracil is created and used instead
A monomer chain is composed of:
one phosphate group
one sugar group (deoxyribose)
one base (any of the following):
Adenine
Cytosine
Thmine
Guanine
Uracil
RNA is not as stable as DNA
DNA is missing an OH group, because of this missing methane group (OH), uracil is created and used instead
A monomer chain is composed of:
one phosphate group
one sugar group (deoxyribose)
one base (any of the following):
Adenine
Cytosine
Thmine
Guanine
Uracil
Composed of Deoxyribose (sugar group)
Base (Guanine)
Phosphate Group
Base (Guanine)
Phosphate Group
Composed of the sugar bonded to the base WITH OUT the phosphate group
Pictured are nucleosides of Cytosine, Uracil, Adenosine & Guananine
Pictured are nucleosides of Cytosine, Uracil, Adenosine & Guananine
Backbone is phosphate + sugar
Backbone is same for Nucleic Acids
Bases are not bonding, they stick out & do not interact
Backbone is same for Nucleic Acids
Bases are not bonding, they stick out & do not interact
Letter Base Sequence: CTGACATA
particular sequence is genetic code, which dictates function
Small circles linked to pentagons are sugar-phosphate backbone
always alternate, phosphate keeps them together
Base Composition of DNA of Various Species
Humans
Adenine & Thymine: 31.5
Guanine: 19.1
Cytosine: 18.4
humans similar % to Corn composition (A25.6, T25.3, G24.5, C24.6)
Chargaff's rules:
(where "=" means almost identical)
in every species: % A = % T
% G = % C
Bases come in pairs
only true for DNA
particular sequence is genetic code, which dictates function
Small circles linked to pentagons are sugar-phosphate backbone
always alternate, phosphate keeps them together
Base Composition of DNA of Various Species
Humans
Adenine & Thymine: 31.5
Guanine: 19.1
Cytosine: 18.4
humans similar % to Corn composition (A25.6, T25.3, G24.5, C24.6)
Chargaff's rules:
(where "=" means almost identical)
in every species: % A = % T
% G = % C
Bases come in pairs
only true for DNA
A with T: the purine adenine (A) always pairs with the pyrimidine thymine (T)
C with G: the pyrimidine cytosine (C) always pairs with the purine guanine (G)
create hydrogen bonds
do not share electrons, they rely on intermolecular attraction
Hydrogen bonds make strong interactions
Chemical structure of bases allow for very stable bonding
Will always be hydrogen bonds
C with G: the pyrimidine cytosine (C) always pairs with the purine guanine (G)
create hydrogen bonds
do not share electrons, they rely on intermolecular attraction
Hydrogen bonds make strong interactions
Chemical structure of bases allow for very stable bonding
Will always be hydrogen bonds
double helix, creating small spirals
DNA is packaged into structures called chromosomes
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
23rd pair is what distinguishes between male & female
DNA is packaged into structures called chromosomes
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs)
23rd pair is what distinguishes between male & female
Process by which copies of DNA are made
Catalyzed by the enzyme DNA polymerase
Before you can replicate you must separate the DNA
an enzyme unravels the DNA so that the DNA polymerase can work to copy the DNA chain
Remember that cells do not think, they act by random collision
Catalyzed by the enzyme DNA polymerase
Before you can replicate you must separate the DNA
an enzyme unravels the DNA so that the DNA polymerase can work to copy the DNA chain
Remember that cells do not think, they act by random collision
from the base, is newly synthesized a complimentary matching strand
forming two molecular copies
The double strand nature of DNA is essential to its replication process
with out the double helix, DNA wouldn't be able to split to make new cells
forming two molecular copies
The double strand nature of DNA is essential to its replication process
with out the double helix, DNA wouldn't be able to split to make new cells
1st Process- Transcription - Records activity and transcribes the sequence. Messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are produced
2nd Process- Translation- The base sequence is translated to an amino acid sequence
Depending on the sequence, there is a function
Enzymes needed for every protein synthesis taking place in body
2nd Process- Translation- The base sequence is translated to an amino acid sequence
Depending on the sequence, there is a function
Enzymes needed for every protein synthesis taking place in body
A sequence of three adjacent nucleotides constituting the genetic code that determines the insertion of a specific amino acid in a polypeptide chain during protein synthesis or the signal to stop protein synthesis.
How is the genetic code written?
in groupings of three DNA bases called Codons
The information is transferred to an mRNA molecule during the transcription process
Each group of three bases (triplet) codifies for one amino acid
There are 64 possible codons & only 20 amino acids.
There is a redundancy in the code
64 options : 4 by 4 bases x possible bases [4 x 4 x4]
The information is transferred to an mRNA molecule during the transcription process
Each group of three bases (triplet) codifies for one amino acid
There are 64 possible codons & only 20 amino acids.
There is a redundancy in the code
64 options : 4 by 4 bases x possible bases [4 x 4 x4]
A gene in DNA is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule
DNA polymerase creates DNA enzyme
gene is on one or other side of base
mRNA will send message in cytoplasm
then binds to protein making machine, Ribosome
DNA polymerase creates DNA enzyme
gene is on one or other side of base
mRNA will send message in cytoplasm
then binds to protein making machine, Ribosome
The sequence of bases in mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids in a protein
tRNA comes from cytoplasm, small molecule of RNA, one end of tRNA is amino acid detected by sequence of bases (nucleotides of RNA called Anticodon)
tRNA binds to mRNA in Ribosome via Hydrogen bonds
once those two tRNAs have bonded, they form bonds together, then tRNA moves down mRNA
the Anti-codon end of tRNA will match codon in mRNA
Once sequence of base translation is complete, it reveals the polymer, a protein
tRNA comes from cytoplasm, small molecule of RNA, one end of tRNA is amino acid detected by sequence of bases (nucleotides of RNA called Anticodon)
tRNA binds to mRNA in Ribosome via Hydrogen bonds
once those two tRNAs have bonded, they form bonds together, then tRNA moves down mRNA
the Anti-codon end of tRNA will match codon in mRNA
Once sequence of base translation is complete, it reveals the polymer, a protein
A sample of DNA is 20% in Adenine (A). What is the % content of guanine (G) in this sample of DNA?
A - 20%
B - 30%
C - 40%
D - 60%
[B]
%A = 20 = T% --> 20 + 20 = 40 --> 100% - 40% = 60% ---> 60% / 2 = 30% --> [B]
B - 30%
C - 40%
D - 60%
[B]
%A = 20 = T% --> 20 + 20 = 40 --> 100% - 40% = 60% ---> 60% / 2 = 30% --> [B]
Drugs used to treat infections
Antibiotics : deal with bacteria (single cell org.)
Antiviral : deal with viruses
Antifungals : treat fungal infections
Antiprotozoal drugs: to treat malaria
Antiviral : deal with viruses
Antifungals : treat fungal infections
Antiprotozoal drugs: to treat malaria
Infections/Infestations
caused by microbes
important in:
production of food
source of most abundant oil
presence in soil is essential to existence of life
BUT ALSO
cause horrendous epidemics:
smallpox
syphilis
cholera
In past, a simple cut could lead to generalized infection, blood poisoning & end in death
added +10 years to life because of antibiotics
In 1900, most death due to infections
Today death caused by heart disease
important in:
production of food
source of most abundant oil
presence in soil is essential to existence of life
BUT ALSO
cause horrendous epidemics:
smallpox
syphilis
cholera
In past, a simple cut could lead to generalized infection, blood poisoning & end in death
added +10 years to life because of antibiotics
In 1900, most death due to infections
Today death caused by heart disease
Immune System
Complex network of cells & organs that work together to defend your body from viruses, bacteria, fungi & protozoa
sickness is a sign that your body is responding, fighting off invaders from outside
sickness is a sign that your body is responding, fighting off invaders from outside
Types of Immune Response
Innate immune response
starts very quickly after infection
does not depend on recognizing a specific type of foreign substance
natural killer cells are a component of innate immunity
Acquired Immune Response
starts more slowly, but it is also longer lived
specific to certain foreign substances
it can remember past infections: allows the immune system to react quickly if you are ever re-infected with the same pathogen
starts very quickly after infection
does not depend on recognizing a specific type of foreign substance
natural killer cells are a component of innate immunity
Acquired Immune Response
starts more slowly, but it is also longer lived
specific to certain foreign substances
it can remember past infections: allows the immune system to react quickly if you are ever re-infected with the same pathogen
Antigen
foreign substance, usually a protein, that can harm your body & that causes an immune response from your body
Antigen-Presenting cells
digest intruders & display the antigen on their surface
Antigen presenting cells then look for other immune cells that respond to that specific antigen
Antigen presenting cells then look for other immune cells that respond to that specific antigen
Types of cells that Antigen-Presenting cells look for : (I)
B Cells
Each B cell recognizes one & only one type of antigen
When the antigen-presenting cells find B cells that recognize the antigen, those B cells become active & begin to reproduce
B cells release antibodies, which mark foreign matter & infected cells for destruction
B cells also produce "memory B cells"
T Cells
T cells are specific to exactly one type of antigen
T cells release cytokines, which direct immune cells to attack a foreign substance
Each B cell recognizes one & only one type of antigen
When the antigen-presenting cells find B cells that recognize the antigen, those B cells become active & begin to reproduce
B cells release antibodies, which mark foreign matter & infected cells for destruction
B cells also produce "memory B cells"
T Cells
T cells are specific to exactly one type of antigen
T cells release cytokines, which direct immune cells to attack a foreign substance
Types of cells that Antigen-Presenting cells look for : (II)
CD4+ T cells (a.k.a "helper T cells") : coordinate the immune response. Stimulate B cells to respond & increase the production of CD8+ T cells
CD8+ T cells (a.k.a "killer cells" or "cytoxic T lymphocytes" (CTLs)
kill the cells that have become infected by an antigen. As with B cells, once the infection is under control, many of these T cells are no longer needed & they die. However, so T cells become memory cells which can respond quickly if the antigen is encountered again
CD8+ T cells (a.k.a "killer cells" or "cytoxic T lymphocytes" (CTLs)
kill the cells that have become infected by an antigen. As with B cells, once the infection is under control, many of these T cells are no longer needed & they die. However, so T cells become memory cells which can respond quickly if the antigen is encountered again
so simple, no nucleus
come in many forms : straight rod, club shaped, branching, comma, spore, spiral, coccus
very small
seen under microscopes
Girolamo Fracastoro suggested that typhus & TB could be transmitted between people via tiny orgs.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek invented simple microscope, saw tiny organisms, animacules
Holmes concluded death in hospitals due to contaminated hands
Snow & Budd (1854) found cholera was transmitted by water supplies contaminated with sewage
come in many forms : straight rod, club shaped, branching, comma, spore, spiral, coccus
very small
seen under microscopes
Girolamo Fracastoro suggested that typhus & TB could be transmitted between people via tiny orgs.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek invented simple microscope, saw tiny organisms, animacules
Holmes concluded death in hospitals due to contaminated hands
Snow & Budd (1854) found cholera was transmitted by water supplies contaminated with sewage
Discovery of antibacterial drugs
by Paul Ehrlich
discovered compound to treat syphilis
via dyes that stained different cells in body
Chemotherapy:
If chemicals could selectively bind to bacteria & not to normal human cells, then a toxic substance could be attached to the chemical so that bacteria, but not the human cell, would be killed
discovered compound to treat syphilis
via dyes that stained different cells in body
Chemotherapy:
If chemicals could selectively bind to bacteria & not to normal human cells, then a toxic substance could be attached to the chemical so that bacteria, but not the human cell, would be killed
Penicillin
Alexander Flemming
bacterial culture contaminated with mold
because Bacterial cells are very different from human cells, its easy to treat bacterial infections with out harming human cells
bacterial culture contaminated with mold
because Bacterial cells are very different from human cells, its easy to treat bacterial infections with out harming human cells
Bacteriostatic drugs: stop the growth of bacteria & let the immune system kill the intruders
Bacteriocidal drugs: kill the bacteria
Penicillin G, most common group
Effective against bacteria responsible for:
Pneumonia
Gonorrhea
Syphilis
Bacteriocidal drugs: kill the bacteria
Penicillin G, most common group
Effective against bacteria responsible for:
Pneumonia
Gonorrhea
Syphilis
How do antibiotics work (I)
Penicillins prevent formation of links between molecules in cell wall
inhibit enzyme that builds cell wall of bacteria, wall cant be closed, contents spill out & bacteria dies
Sulphonamides substitute for PABA & prevent enzymes from producing the essential folic acid
if you prevent formation of folic acids bacteria dies because it uses folic acids to synthesize their own nucleic acids
Tetracyclines block delivery of amino acids for protein manufacture
Bacteria can not make their own proteins
inhibit enzyme that builds cell wall of bacteria, wall cant be closed, contents spill out & bacteria dies
Sulphonamides substitute for PABA & prevent enzymes from producing the essential folic acid
if you prevent formation of folic acids bacteria dies because it uses folic acids to synthesize their own nucleic acids
Tetracyclines block delivery of amino acids for protein manufacture
Bacteria can not make their own proteins
How do antibiotics work (II)
Macrolides
prevent amino acids being linked together to form proteins
Amynoglycosides
cause formation of abnormal proteins
Quinolones
damage DNA & prevent bacteria from reproducing
prevent amino acids being linked together to form proteins
Amynoglycosides
cause formation of abnormal proteins
Quinolones
damage DNA & prevent bacteria from reproducing
Antibiotic resistance
The cells produce more of the molecules affected by the drugs, such as PABA
The structure of the bacteria wall changes so that the drugs can not enter
The bacteria produce enzymes which destroy the drug
The bacteria produce molecules which push the drugs out of the cell
might not recognize Amoxicillin, higher chance of mistaking esther, results in copying
The structure of the bacteria wall changes so that the drugs can not enter
The bacteria produce enzymes which destroy the drug
The bacteria produce molecules which push the drugs out of the cell
might not recognize Amoxicillin, higher chance of mistaking esther, results in copying
Difference Between Bacteria & Animals
Bacteria reproduces quickly
1 generation : Animals : 30-40 years
1 generation: Bacteria : 1 day
Bacteria mutation not permitting medication creates antibiotic resistance
1 generation : Animals : 30-40 years
1 generation: Bacteria : 1 day
Bacteria mutation not permitting medication creates antibiotic resistance
The product of transcription results in
The replacement of Uracil instead of Thyamine
RNA --> U
In transcription, the product is RNA & RNA uses Uracil not thyamine
RNA --> U
In transcription, the product is RNA & RNA uses Uracil not thyamine
Virus
so small, needs to be seen from microscope
the only way viruses can reproduce is to take over the host cell to make copies of itself
thousands of viruses
In viruses, membranes are stolen from the host cell
are molecules with genetic information--contain DNA
the only way viruses can reproduce is to take over the host cell to make copies of itself
thousands of viruses
In viruses, membranes are stolen from the host cell
are molecules with genetic information--contain DNA
Retro Virus
a virus which contains genetic info stored in the form of RNA
A prime example is HIV
A prime example is HIV
a retro virus
the genetic info is stored as RNA instead of DNA
HIV attacks cell that is supposed to defend host from virus
HIV doesn't kill, it leaves body defenseless
Surrounded by Proteins called GP120 & GP41
GP means complex proteins called envelope proteins
Cell membrane is stolen from host
In Viral Core:
info store
viral RNA stored in 2 strands
3 Enzymes:
Protease
Integrase
Reverse Transcriptase
the genetic info is stored as RNA instead of DNA
HIV attacks cell that is supposed to defend host from virus
HIV doesn't kill, it leaves body defenseless
Surrounded by Proteins called GP120 & GP41
GP means complex proteins called envelope proteins
Cell membrane is stolen from host
In Viral Core:
info store
viral RNA stored in 2 strands
3 Enzymes:
Protease
Integrase
Reverse Transcriptase
1. Virus binds: GP120 protein binds to envelope CD4 receptors
2. Virus Released into Cell: GP41 punches a hole through the cell envelope and the viral core is injected into the cell.
3. Reverse Transcription: Reverse Transcriptase catalyzes, first, the synthesis of a DNA copy of the viral RNA & second, the synthesis of a second DNA strand complementary to the first one
4. Integrase: The double-stranded DNA is then incorporated into the host cell's DNA by the viral enzyme Integrase
2. Virus Released into Cell: GP41 punches a hole through the cell envelope and the viral core is injected into the cell.
3. Reverse Transcription: Reverse Transcriptase catalyzes, first, the synthesis of a DNA copy of the viral RNA & second, the synthesis of a second DNA strand complementary to the first one
4. Integrase: The double-stranded DNA is then incorporated into the host cell's DNA by the viral enzyme Integrase
5. Transcription: Transcription of the DNA results in the production of RNA. This RNA can serve as the genome for new viruses & can be translated to produce viral proteins
6. Viral Ribosome makes proteins into long chain of amino acids with no function
7. Protease cuts the amino acids into functional viral proteins
8. Complete HIV particles are assembled. In macrophages, HIV buds out of the cell without rupturing the cell. In T cells, HIV exists the cell by rupturing it, effectively killing it
6. Viral Ribosome makes proteins into long chain of amino acids with no function
7. Protease cuts the amino acids into functional viral proteins
8. Complete HIV particles are assembled. In macrophages, HIV buds out of the cell without rupturing the cell. In T cells, HIV exists the cell by rupturing it, effectively killing it
Part of the lifecycle where drugs can intervene & slow down the life cycle of the virus
No cure for AIDS
Drugs do slow down process prevent killing of immune system
1. Fusion Inhibitors: Binds to receptor CD4+ cell exposes 2 layers of membrane to fuse, to inhibit this would be essentially to save the cell
2. Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors: Synthesize strand of DNA from RNA, to inhibit this would essentially prevent the replication of viral DNA
No cure for AIDS
Drugs do slow down process prevent killing of immune system
1. Fusion Inhibitors: Binds to receptor CD4+ cell exposes 2 layers of membrane to fuse, to inhibit this would be essentially to save the cell
2. Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors: Synthesize strand of DNA from RNA, to inhibit this would essentially prevent the replication of viral DNA
3. Integration Inhibitors: Prevents the insertion of viral DNA into chromosome where bonds are formed
4. Protease Inhibitors: Prevents the breaking up of amino acids from gathering into a viral core before exiting the cell, taking a piece of the cell membrane with it and essentially destroying the cell.
4. Protease Inhibitors: Prevents the breaking up of amino acids from gathering into a viral core before exiting the cell, taking a piece of the cell membrane with it and essentially destroying the cell.
Nucleoside Analog Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitors (RTIs)
1st group of Reverse Transcriptase looks like a nucleoside
Normal nucleoside has an Alcohol (OH) group in the sugar
In RTIs, bind phosphate to another sugar
chain can not grow anymore and therefore inhibits process
Normal nucleoside has an Alcohol (OH) group in the sugar
In RTIs, bind phosphate to another sugar
chain can not grow anymore and therefore inhibits process
How do RTIs work
Non-nucleoside Analog reverse transcriptase inhibitors
NNRTIs
occupy the active site of the enzyme reverse transcriptase
Liklihood of chain build up is inversely proportional to amount of drug in body
Now chain can not grow because it lacks alcohol to bond to phosphate group
NNRTIs
occupy the active site of the enzyme reverse transcriptase
Liklihood of chain build up is inversely proportional to amount of drug in body
Now chain can not grow because it lacks alcohol to bond to phosphate group
Other HIV Drugs
Protease Inhibitors
Occupy the active sit of the enzyme protease:
Invirase
Norvir
Crixivan
Viracept
designed to fit in active site of enzyme
Integrase Inhibitors:
Occupy the active site of the enzyme integrase
Occupy the active sit of the enzyme protease:
Invirase
Norvir
Crixivan
Viracept
designed to fit in active site of enzyme
Integrase Inhibitors:
Occupy the active site of the enzyme integrase
Other HIV Drugs
GP120 Competitors
prevent the fusion of viral membrane to the cell
GP120
Drugs that interact with the surface glycoprotein of HIV.
Blind to GP120 & neutralize it by preventing virus from binding to the cell surface or detaching GP 120 form the HIV envelope, thereby inactivating the virus
Fusion Inhibitors
Drugs that stop the fusion of the viral envelope w/ the host cell membrane
Synthetic molecules that block the CD4 receptors on CD4 cells
Drugs taken orally, enzymes in stomach will break it down
prevent the fusion of viral membrane to the cell
GP120
Drugs that interact with the surface glycoprotein of HIV.
Blind to GP120 & neutralize it by preventing virus from binding to the cell surface or detaching GP 120 form the HIV envelope, thereby inactivating the virus
Fusion Inhibitors
Drugs that stop the fusion of the viral envelope w/ the host cell membrane
Synthetic molecules that block the CD4 receptors on CD4 cells
Drugs taken orally, enzymes in stomach will break it down
Vaccines
Prepare the immune system to fight the infection
providing immune system into on characteristics of pathogen
Preventative
our immune system is unable to respond to HIV
can not develop anti-bodies against sugars
virus mutates very quickly, body unable to respond
AIDSVax: Synthetic GP120
When AIDSVax was injected, the immune system cells would produce antibodies
In theory: you can cut the gene that develops CD4 receptors via virus
If the organism is exposed to the virus, the antibodies recognize the virus
providing immune system into on characteristics of pathogen
Preventative
our immune system is unable to respond to HIV
can not develop anti-bodies against sugars
virus mutates very quickly, body unable to respond
AIDSVax: Synthetic GP120
When AIDSVax was injected, the immune system cells would produce antibodies
In theory: you can cut the gene that develops CD4 receptors via virus
If the organism is exposed to the virus, the antibodies recognize the virus
Life & Death of Cells
Human Body: composed of ~100 trillion cells
Continually renewed
In adults:
Rate of cell formation= Rate of cell removal
Cells have control mechanisms
In some cases these control mechanisms fail:
cells are produced at a faster rate than cells are dying
cells are not dying as fast as they should
Continually renewed
In adults:
Rate of cell formation= Rate of cell removal
Cells have control mechanisms
In some cases these control mechanisms fail:
cells are produced at a faster rate than cells are dying
cells are not dying as fast as they should
Tumors & Cancer
Cells are "programmed"
after a certain amount of time or certain number of cell division, a series of biochemical reactions causes the cell to die = apoptosis
cancers develop when this is faulty
Tumors grow & press on blood vessels & nerves --> discomfort & pain
Secrete large amounts of chemicals which interfere w/ organ function
Parts may break away & begin growing in --> Mestasis
different regions of the body
Part of tumor that breaks down invades another organ
after a certain amount of time or certain number of cell division, a series of biochemical reactions causes the cell to die = apoptosis
cancers develop when this is faulty
Tumors grow & press on blood vessels & nerves --> discomfort & pain
Secrete large amounts of chemicals which interfere w/ organ function
Parts may break away & begin growing in --> Mestasis
different regions of the body
Part of tumor that breaks down invades another organ
Oncogenes
Genes that, when expressed, make cells divide more rapidly
triggers cell division
Tumor Suppressor Genes (TSGs)
Genes that suppress cell division
prevent cells division
These two should be balanced
If TSG doesnt function correctly, oncogenes cause cells to grow & multiply beyond normal #s
If oncogenes do not function, they will over-signal the cell to grow uncontrollably
Half of all cancers are due to a defect
mutation in TSG called p53--causes cells to commit suicide if damaged
Genes that, when expressed, make cells divide more rapidly
triggers cell division
Tumor Suppressor Genes (TSGs)
Genes that suppress cell division
prevent cells division
These two should be balanced
If TSG doesnt function correctly, oncogenes cause cells to grow & multiply beyond normal #s
If oncogenes do not function, they will over-signal the cell to grow uncontrollably
Half of all cancers are due to a defect
mutation in TSG called p53--causes cells to commit suicide if damaged
Oncogene
A mutation of a single allele is sufficient for their abnormal function to appear
Tumor Suppressor Gene
Since any remaining allele of a TSG will provide with the function, both copies of the gene need to be inactivated in order to proceed to malignancy
What causes Cancer: Genetic Factors
Family history
gene mutations
chromosomal abnormalities
gene mutations
chromosomal abnormalities
What causes Cancer: Environmental Factors
Smoking
Exposure to radiation
Diet
Exposure to chemicals
Exposure to viruses, bacteria, parasites, etc. [HPV]
Location [radiation]
Exposure to radiation
Diet
Exposure to chemicals
Exposure to viruses, bacteria, parasites, etc. [HPV]
Location [radiation]
Cancer & the Immune System
Even when a cell becomes cancerous, the immune system can often destroy it before it replicates & becomes a cancer
Cancer is more likely to develop when the immune system is weakened, as in people with AIDS, those receiving immunosuppressive drugs (implant patients) etc.
Cancer is more likely to develop when the immune system is weakened, as in people with AIDS, those receiving immunosuppressive drugs (implant patients) etc.
Drugs to treat Cancer
Paul Ehrlich : Selective Toxicity (easy to achieve when the cells causing the illness are very different from human cells)
More difficult to achieve when the cells causing the illness are derived from the body's own cells
Drugs used to kill cancer cells will also damage the body's healthy cells and produce "unpleasant" side effects
Affect tissues in which normal cells are dividing rapidly
Bone marrow (replaced white & red blood cells)
Anemia
Drugs need to be delivered in intervals
More difficult to achieve when the cells causing the illness are derived from the body's own cells
Drugs used to kill cancer cells will also damage the body's healthy cells and produce "unpleasant" side effects
Affect tissues in which normal cells are dividing rapidly
Bone marrow (replaced white & red blood cells)
Anemia
Drugs need to be delivered in intervals
Cancer treatments
All pharmacological treatments derived to date are based on the reductionist view of cancer
most treatments use reductionist view: create a drug to kill those cells/keep them from dividing
not always successful
A Hereotypic Cell Biology
constitutes current research
stop growth of blood vessels of cancer, it wont grow
Total warfare on cell
most treatments use reductionist view: create a drug to kill those cells/keep them from dividing
not always successful
A Hereotypic Cell Biology
constitutes current research
stop growth of blood vessels of cancer, it wont grow
Total warfare on cell
Drugs for Cancer: Target Cell Division
most anticancer drugs are designed to slow or stop cell growth
many drugs used to combat cancer interfere with:
replication
transcription
translation
protein synthesis
most drugs have very serious side effects
many drugs used to combat cancer interfere with:
replication
transcription
translation
protein synthesis
most drugs have very serious side effects
Alkylating Agents
These drugs to treat Cancer produce covalent bonds among bases of complementary strands that cannot be separated during replication or transcription, effectively killing the cells
The main group among these are the Platinum compounds (Cisplatin)
The main group among these are the Platinum compounds (Cisplatin)
Toxic Antibiotics
Become inserted into the DNA molecules, changing their shape & preventing their use by the cells
Aactinomycin, doxorubicin prevent cells from transcribing DNA into RNA
Aactinomycin, doxorubicin prevent cells from transcribing DNA into RNA
Folic Acid antagonists
Metotrexate impedes the formation of folic acid, which is indispensable for the production of new nucleotides, thus stopping replication & transcription
Procarbazine
Weakens the structure of nucleic acids, causing breakages & cell damage.
It also leads to the production of free radicals which react with nucleic acids & proteins causing widespread damage to cancer cells
It also leads to the production of free radicals which react with nucleic acids & proteins causing widespread damage to cancer cells
Purine Antagonists
Cytarabine & Fluoruracil (the oldest of all cancer drugs) inhibit the enzyme responsible for the synthesis of new DNA
this is produced by irreversibly binding enzymes necessary in the production of new nucleotides
this is produced by irreversibly binding enzymes necessary in the production of new nucleotides
Antimetabolites
Substitute for the components of DNA, preventing its use by cells
Radiation Therapy
Preferentially destroys cells that divide rapidly : cancer
can also damage normal tissues (esp. rapidly reproducing) : i.e. skin, hair, ovary, testis, bone marrow
Performed with a linear accelerator
rays directed very closely to tumor
adverse affect of rays depends on how large area being irradiated is & its proximity to tissues
Used when:
chemo doesn't work
turmor(s) localized
tumor is small
can also damage normal tissues (esp. rapidly reproducing) : i.e. skin, hair, ovary, testis, bone marrow
Performed with a linear accelerator
rays directed very closely to tumor
adverse affect of rays depends on how large area being irradiated is & its proximity to tissues
Used when:
chemo doesn't work
turmor(s) localized
tumor is small
Drug Resistance
Tumor cells that survive might become resistant to treatment
Happens because most aggressive tumors display: Genomic Instability
cells acquire a mutation that allows them to replicate even after sustaining great deal of DNA changes
Bacteria develop resistance to drugs because they divide rapidly & therefore mutate & have many quick generations
Happens because most aggressive tumors display: Genomic Instability
cells acquire a mutation that allows them to replicate even after sustaining great deal of DNA changes
Bacteria develop resistance to drugs because they divide rapidly & therefore mutate & have many quick generations
A Heterotypic Cell Biology
altering the support network that tumors need to survive
Regulation of angiogenesis (blood vessels)
Vascular Endothelial Growht Factor antibodies & antagonists
Restoration of apoptotic & differentiation signals, losing gene which causes cell suicide, re-insert lost/mutated cells
Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibitors (MMPIs), inhibiting the enzymes that build the structure
Regulation of angiogenesis (blood vessels)
Vascular Endothelial Growht Factor antibodies & antagonists
Restoration of apoptotic & differentiation signals, losing gene which causes cell suicide, re-insert lost/mutated cells
Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibitors (MMPIs), inhibiting the enzymes that build the structure
Poison
Substance which after being absorbed into the circulatory system can injuriously affect health or destroy life
Substance that can cause death or illness
Substance that can cause death or illness
Toxins
harmful substance of biological origin
Acute toxicity
immediate effect
2 Doses:
lethal (depends on many factors)
sub-lethal (not enough to kill you)
2 Doses:
lethal (depends on many factors)
sub-lethal (not enough to kill you)
Chronic Toxicity
poison experienced over time
varies based on:
species
age
sex
health
form of administration
varies based on:
species
age
sex
health
form of administration
LD50 (Lethal Dose for 50% of group)
Dioxin is very toxic to humans per unit of body mass
Common Substances (caffeine, nicotine, etc.) in large enough doses, could be toxic
difficult to determine for humans & we must assume humans are huge rats
Botullinum toxin A - 1 tsp. enough to kill 1/4 of world's entire population, also active ingredient in Botox
Common Substances (caffeine, nicotine, etc.) in large enough doses, could be toxic
difficult to determine for humans & we must assume humans are huge rats
Botullinum toxin A - 1 tsp. enough to kill 1/4 of world's entire population, also active ingredient in Botox
When administered orally to the rat, the LD50 for parathion is 20 mg/kg. For a rat weighing .075 kg, what is dose (mg) that has a 50% chance of lethality?
A. 5 mg
B. 10 mg
C. 15 mg
D. 20 mg
[C]
20 Mg/ Kg X 0.75 = 15 mg
B. 10 mg
C. 15 mg
D. 20 mg
[C]
20 Mg/ Kg X 0.75 = 15 mg
Acids & bases break down phospholipids into a phosphoglycerol molecule & two ___________ molecules
A. Glucose
B. Fatty Acid
C. Amino Acid
D. Nucleic Acid
[B] Fatty Acid
B. Fatty Acid
C. Amino Acid
D. Nucleic Acid
[B] Fatty Acid
Corrosive Poisons
strong acids: release hydrogen ions (H+)
strong bases: release hydroxide ions (OH-)
both are very corrosive
this group breaks down tissues
lipids (lipid bi-layer in cell membrance) acid/base breaks down the esther bonds
Also breaks the peptide bonds holding the amino acid, amine group & carboxylic acid together
This means that over time, skin will be broken down when exposed
strong bases: release hydroxide ions (OH-)
both are very corrosive
this group breaks down tissues
lipids (lipid bi-layer in cell membrance) acid/base breaks down the esther bonds
Also breaks the peptide bonds holding the amino acid, amine group & carboxylic acid together
This means that over time, skin will be broken down when exposed
Blood Agents
poisons that interfere with functions of blood, namely concerning the hemoglobin
Hemoglobin contains 4 heme groups attached to iron
where oxygen is attached
This allows hemoglobin to successfully transport oxygen all over body
blood agents interfere with binding of O2 to Fe (iron)
Hemoglobin contains 4 heme groups attached to iron
where oxygen is attached
This allows hemoglobin to successfully transport oxygen all over body
blood agents interfere with binding of O2 to Fe (iron)
Each tablet of Childrens Tylenol contains 100 mg of acetamenophine (LD50=.3g/kg). How many tablets must be administered to a child weighing 20kg to be lethal?
A. 15
B. 30
C. 60
D. 90
[C]
LD50 is 0.3 g/kg X 20 kg = 6 g
100 mg/ tablet = 0.1 g/tablet
# of tablets = 6g/ 0.1 g/tablet
60 Tablets
B. 30
C. 60
D. 90
[C]
LD50 is 0.3 g/kg X 20 kg = 6 g
100 mg/ tablet = 0.1 g/tablet
# of tablets = 6g/ 0.1 g/tablet
60 Tablets
Blood Agents: Nitrites (NO2-)
Found in groundwater in agricultural areas
Convert Fe2- into Fe3+
Blue-baby syndrome
turns Iron II into Iron III
one of the conditions that iron transfers oxygen is that iron is in an oxidation state
an iron atom w/ 2 less atoms- cation
usually pollutants in water, bi-products of fertilizer
Convert Fe2- into Fe3+
Blue-baby syndrome
turns Iron II into Iron III
one of the conditions that iron transfers oxygen is that iron is in an oxidation state
an iron atom w/ 2 less atoms- cation
usually pollutants in water, bi-products of fertilizer
Blood Agents: Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Binds to the iron in hemoglobin 200 times more strongly than 02
Cyanides (CN-)
Glucose --catalyzed by cytochrome oxidase --- CO2 + H2O + energy
CN- binds to Fe3+ & blocks the action of this enzyme
doesn't interfere with hemoglobin but with iron in the body
need glucose for many bodily processes in many small steps, catalyzed by small enzymes
cyctochrome oxidase
cyanide binds strongly , blocks actions of enzyme, stopping energy reactions in the body
binds to iron similar to blood agents
CN- binds to Fe3+ & blocks the action of this enzyme
doesn't interfere with hemoglobin but with iron in the body
need glucose for many bodily processes in many small steps, catalyzed by small enzymes
cyctochrome oxidase
cyanide binds strongly , blocks actions of enzyme, stopping energy reactions in the body
binds to iron similar to blood agents
Heavy Metals
Lead (Pb), Mercury (Hg), Arsenic (As), etc.
have large atomic number
have large atomic number
Why are heavy metals toxic?
Proteins contain the amino acid cysteine
Pb & Hg bind very strongly to sulfur
one of the amino acids in proteins has a sulfur add-on
-heavy metals bond with sulfur
heavy metals bind with sulfur in body forming chain might change shape of active sight, enzyme then becomes useless
Pb & Hg bind very strongly to sulfur
one of the amino acids in proteins has a sulfur add-on
-heavy metals bond with sulfur
heavy metals bind with sulfur in body forming chain might change shape of active sight, enzyme then becomes useless
Treatment for lead poisoning: Ethylendiamminetetraacetic acid (EDTA)
dissolves in water
remove that metal from the body
give poisoned person a molecule that binds to the metal, trapping it
use to trap metals in water or aqueous solutions
binds to the metal in 6 different places bringing it into solution to bee excreted in urine
remove that metal from the body
give poisoned person a molecule that binds to the metal, trapping it
use to trap metals in water or aqueous solutions
binds to the metal in 6 different places bringing it into solution to bee excreted in urine
Chelating Agents
substance whose molecules can form several bonds to a single metal ion.
metals can bind to these agents in different ways, up to three bonds or more
very water soluble
metals can bind to these agents in different ways, up to three bonds or more
very water soluble
Nerve agents
compounds that interfere in normal neurotransmission
used in presticides & war
organophosphorous compounds
Acetylcholine, one neurotransmitte that is related by parasympathetic nerves working on N & M receptors triggering contraction of muscles & involuntary muscles
used in presticides & war
organophosphorous compounds
Acetylcholine, one neurotransmitte that is related by parasympathetic nerves working on N & M receptors triggering contraction of muscles & involuntary muscles
breaks moleucles in half
Nerve gas
Nerve gases block acetlycholinesterase irreversibly
Antidote is atropine
Blocks M & N receptors
prevent the break down of acetylcholine
acetylcholine accumulates & continues acting on receptors
because enzyme isn't working acetylcholine is active all at once: both paralysing and choking
Nerve gas
Nerve gases block acetlycholinesterase irreversibly
Antidote is atropine
Blocks M & N receptors
prevent the break down of acetylcholine
acetylcholine accumulates & continues acting on receptors
because enzyme isn't working acetylcholine is active all at once: both paralysing and choking
Teratogens
cause bith defects from the drugs we take
During organogenesis the embryo is extremely sensitive to teratogens
Thalidomide is a sleeping pill that can result in shortened or missing arms or legs; was sold over the counter in Germany
During organogenesis the embryo is extremely sensitive to teratogens
Thalidomide is a sleeping pill that can result in shortened or missing arms or legs; was sold over the counter in Germany
Animal Toxins
Scorpions:
Toxins block potassium (K+) channels
cell membranes are phosopholipid bi-layers some walls/or channels have proteins embedded in them
this involves normal function of nerves, muscles & hormone secretion
disrupts physiological processes
Snakes:
toxins prevent blood clotting
victims therefore bleed to death
similar to nerve gases
Spiders (i.e. Black Widow):
poison contains latrotoxin, which opens Ca2+ channels, increasing the secretion of acetylcholine
Cramps & difficulty breathing
Toxins block potassium (K+) channels
cell membranes are phosopholipid bi-layers some walls/or channels have proteins embedded in them
this involves normal function of nerves, muscles & hormone secretion
disrupts physiological processes
Snakes:
toxins prevent blood clotting
victims therefore bleed to death
similar to nerve gases
Spiders (i.e. Black Widow):
poison contains latrotoxin, which opens Ca2+ channels, increasing the secretion of acetylcholine
Cramps & difficulty breathing
Protozoa are similar to bacteria but much more advanced single-celled orgs
thinner phospholipid bi-layers (similar to animals)
have nucleus (like animals)
adopt different forms of life & may need many diff hosts
thinner phospholipid bi-layers (similar to animals)
have nucleus (like animals)
adopt different forms of life & may need many diff hosts
a gastro-intestinal disase
caused by Entamoeba histolytica, feeds on bacteria in the intestine, causing violent & bloody diarrhea
caused by Entamoeba histolytica, feeds on bacteria in the intestine, causing violent & bloody diarrhea
the most common protozoal infestation of humans outside the tropics, caused by Toxoplasma Gondii, transmitted in uncooked meat
sleeping sickness in Africa
Parasites invade the brain and the inflammation causes prolonged sleep & death
Chagas disease in America
parasites affect the brain cells
Parasites invade the brain and the inflammation causes prolonged sleep & death
Chagas disease in America
parasites affect the brain cells
transmitted by the mosquito Anopheles, one single mosquito bite
drugs to treat, cure & prevent malaria
caused by the Plasmodium falciparum (severe & fatal) & P. malariae & P. virax (milder forms
all of which infect red blood cells until they burst, thus killing red blood cells
symptoms: fever, sweating, headaches, muscle pains, anemia
Hydrophobic (not a lot of nitrogen & oxygen)
drugs to treat, cure & prevent malaria
caused by the Plasmodium falciparum (severe & fatal) & P. malariae & P. virax (milder forms
all of which infect red blood cells until they burst, thus killing red blood cells
symptoms: fever, sweating, headaches, muscle pains, anemia
Hydrophobic (not a lot of nitrogen & oxygen)
insecticide prepared in 1873
effective against malaria carrying mosquitos and typhus carrying lice
many species of insects developed resistance to DDT, also has high toxicity toward fish
banned in US in 1973
overuse of insecticides leads to resistance
fat soluble
can also cause cancer in Humans
effective against malaria carrying mosquitos and typhus carrying lice
many species of insects developed resistance to DDT, also has high toxicity toward fish
banned in US in 1973
overuse of insecticides leads to resistance
fat soluble
can also cause cancer in Humans
1. In the anopheles mosquito, malaria parasites multiply in the stomach wall. Mosquito bites, transferring parasites.
2. Parasites pass into host liver where they multiply.
3. After several days, parasites leave liver & invade red blood cells, feeding on Hemoglobin, where they multiply again.
4. Eventually red cells burst (causing fever), releasing the parasites into the bloodstream.
5. When another mosquito bites, it will take parasites into stomach and begin cycle all over again.
2. Parasites pass into host liver where they multiply.
3. After several days, parasites leave liver & invade red blood cells, feeding on Hemoglobin, where they multiply again.
4. Eventually red cells burst (causing fever), releasing the parasites into the bloodstream.
5. When another mosquito bites, it will take parasites into stomach and begin cycle all over again.
Similar to intervention in HIV life cylce : interfere with production of folic acids & nucleic acids
1. Proguanil & pyrimethamine prevent production of new DNA, essential for reproduction (inhibit enzyme to produce folic acid)
2. Primaquine is only drug which can kill parasites in liver
3. Quinine & Chloroquine become concentrated in red blood cells, interfering w/ parasite DNA, preventing reproduction
4. Some parasites remain dormant & take drugs for several weeks after infection
1. Proguanil & pyrimethamine prevent production of new DNA, essential for reproduction (inhibit enzyme to produce folic acid)
2. Primaquine is only drug which can kill parasites in liver
3. Quinine & Chloroquine become concentrated in red blood cells, interfering w/ parasite DNA, preventing reproduction
4. Some parasites remain dormant & take drugs for several weeks after infection
first used in places with heavy malaria
Quinine absorbs light & glows under a black-light
Gin & Tonic came from this cocktail
Used in Africa to prevent Malaria
has a bitter taste
Quinine absorbs light & glows under a black-light
Gin & Tonic came from this cocktail
Used in Africa to prevent Malaria
has a bitter taste
(Expanded) Life Cycle of Malaria Parasite (I)
The anopheles mosquito & the malaria parasite work together to cause malaria
1. Anopheles mosquito with parasite drinks blood, transmits many threadlike structures (called sporozites) into host
2. These sporozites travel to the liver, where they multiply & form another kind of spore called merozoite
3. Merozoites enter bloodstream & penetrate red blood cells, devouring hemoglobin, protein that transports oxygen
1. Anopheles mosquito with parasite drinks blood, transmits many threadlike structures (called sporozites) into host
2. These sporozites travel to the liver, where they multiply & form another kind of spore called merozoite
3. Merozoites enter bloodstream & penetrate red blood cells, devouring hemoglobin, protein that transports oxygen
(Expanded) Life Cycle of Malaria Parasite (II)
4. Blood cell disintegrates, merozoites (now 16-fold) escape & infect red blood cells
5. Few merozoites form a sexual stage, can be sucked up by another mosquito
6. Two sexually active merozoites meet in mosquito gut & produce new generation of parasites
7. This mosquito can transmit the infection only if she sucks more blood from an uninfected person before she dies
5. Few merozoites form a sexual stage, can be sucked up by another mosquito
6. Two sexually active merozoites meet in mosquito gut & produce new generation of parasites
7. This mosquito can transmit the infection only if she sucks more blood from an uninfected person before she dies
a type of molecule that lacks an internal plane of symmetry and thus has a non-superposable mirror image. The feature that is most often the cause of chirality in molecules is the presence of an asymmetric carbon atom.
are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas
Isomers do not necessarily share similar properties, unless they also have the same functional groups. There are many different classes of isomers, like stereoisomers, enantiomers, geometrical isomers, etc.
Isomers do not necessarily share similar properties, unless they also have the same functional groups. There are many different classes of isomers, like stereoisomers, enantiomers, geometrical isomers, etc.
A sub definition of isomers, where the two isomers have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms (constitution), but that differ only in the three-dimensional orientations of their atoms in space.
a sub definition of isomers, where molecules with the same molecular formula have atoms bonded together in different orders, as opposed to stereoisomerism.
specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of.
However, its relative reactivity can be modified by nearby functional groups.
However, its relative reactivity can be modified by nearby functional groups.
saturated hydrocarbons are chemical compounds that consist only of the elements carbon (C) and hydrogen (H) (i.e., hydrocarbons), wherein these atoms are linked together exclusively by single bonds (i.e., they are saturated compounds). Each carbon atom must have 4 bonds (either C-H or C-C bonds), and each hydrogen atom must be joined to a carbon atom (H-C bonds). A series of linked carbon atoms is known as the carbon skeleton or carbon backbone.
Methane [pictured] is simplest alkane.
Methane [pictured] is simplest alkane.
an unsaturated chemical compound containing at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond.
The simplest acyclic alkenes, with only one double bond and no other functional groups, form an homologous series of hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n
Simplest Alkene is ethylene.
The simplest acyclic alkenes, with only one double bond and no other functional groups, form an homologous series of hydrocarbons with the general formula CnH2n
Simplest Alkene is ethylene.
hydrocarbons that have a triple bond between two carbon atoms, with the formula CnH2n-2. Like other hydrocarbons, alkynes are generally hydrophobic but tend to be more reactive. characteristically more unsaturated than alkenes. Thus they add two equivalents of bromine whereas an alkene adds only one equivalent. Other reactions are listed below. Alkynes are usually more reactive than alkenes. They show greater tendency to polymerize or oligomerize than alkenes do.
pictured simplest alkyne
pictured simplest alkyne
a group of atoms similar to benzene with the formula C6H5. The six carbon atoms are arranged in a planar ring, five of which are bonded to a hydrogen atom, and one of which is bonded to a non-hydrogen atom.
The phenyl group is hydrophobic. Phenyl groups tend to resist oxidation and reduction, so they are highly-stable substituents.
The phenyl group is hydrophobic. Phenyl groups tend to resist oxidation and reduction, so they are highly-stable substituents.
organic compounds and functional groups that contain a basic nitrogen atom with a lone pair. Amines are derivatives of ammonia, wherein one or more hydrogen atoms have been replaced by a substituent such as an alkyl or aryl group.Important amines include amino acids, biogenic amines
hus the boiling point of amines is higher than those of the corresponding phosphines, but generally lower than those of the corresponding alcohols.
hus the boiling point of amines is higher than those of the corresponding phosphines, but generally lower than those of the corresponding alcohols.
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a compound containing an oxygen atom bound covalently w/ a hydrogen atom.
hydroxyl anion (OH−) is called hydroxide; it is a diatomic ion with a single negative electronic charge. hydroxyl group (–OH) is referred to as a functional group, when it is linked to a larger organic molecule. important in biological chemistry because of their tendency to form hydrogen bonds both as donor and acceptor
water soluble
important in structure of carbohydrates
hydroxyl anion (OH−) is called hydroxide; it is a diatomic ion with a single negative electronic charge. hydroxyl group (–OH) is referred to as a functional group, when it is linked to a larger organic molecule. important in biological chemistry because of their tendency to form hydrogen bonds both as donor and acceptor
water soluble
important in structure of carbohydrates
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contain an ether group — an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups — of general formula R–O–R.
common linkages in carbohydrates and lignin.
common linkages in carbohydrates and lignin.
derived by reacting an oxoacid with a hydroxyl compound such as an alcohol or phenol.
formed by condensing an acid with an alcohol.
Most naturally occurring fats and oils are the fatty acid esters of glycerol.
Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules
formed by condensing an acid with an alcohol.
Most naturally occurring fats and oils are the fatty acid esters of glycerol.
Phosphoesters form the backbone of DNA molecules
an organic compound that contains the functional group consisting of a carbonyl group (R-C=O) linked to a nitrogen atom (N)
derivatives of carboxylic acids in which the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an amine or ammonia.The lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen is delocalized into the carbonyl, thus forming a partial double bond between N and the carbonyl carbon. Consequently the nitrogen in amides is not pyramidal.
derivatives of carboxylic acids in which the hydroxyl group has been replaced by an amine or ammonia.The lone pair of electrons on the nitrogen is delocalized into the carbonyl, thus forming a partial double bond between N and the carbonyl carbon. Consequently the nitrogen in amides is not pyramidal.
organic acids characterized by the presence of at least one carboxyl group.
most common type of organic acid.
Carboxylic acids are polar. Because they are both hydrogen-bond acceptors (the carbonyl) and hydrogen-bond donors (the hydroxyl), they also participate in hydrogen bonding.
higher boiling points than water
tendency to form stabilised dimers.
weak acids, meaning that they only partially dissociate into H+ cations and RCOO– anions in neutral aqueous solution.
most common type of organic acid.
Carboxylic acids are polar. Because they are both hydrogen-bond acceptors (the carbonyl) and hydrogen-bond donors (the hydroxyl), they also participate in hydrogen bonding.
higher boiling points than water
tendency to form stabilised dimers.
weak acids, meaning that they only partially dissociate into H+ cations and RCOO– anions in neutral aqueous solution.
features a carbonyl group (C=O) bonded to two other carbon atoms Acetone is the simplest example of a ketone
differ from aldehydes in that the carbonyl is placed between two carbons rather than at the end of a carbon skeleton. They are also distinct from other functional groups, such as carboxylic acids, esters and amides, which have a carbonyl group bonded to a hetero atom.
differ from aldehydes in that the carbonyl is placed between two carbons rather than at the end of a carbon skeleton. They are also distinct from other functional groups, such as carboxylic acids, esters and amides, which have a carbonyl group bonded to a hetero atom.
consists of a carbonyl centre bonded to hydrogen and an R group.[1] The group without R is called the aldehyde group or formyl group.
planar carbon center that is connected by a double bond to oxygen and a single bond to hydrogen.
somewhat polar.
Many fragrances are aldehydes.
planar carbon center that is connected by a double bond to oxygen and a single bond to hydrogen.
somewhat polar.
Many fragrances are aldehydes.
About this deck
By: Lauren Gleason
Created: 2011-04-22
Size: 203 flashcards
Views: 268
Created: 2011-04-22
Size: 203 flashcards
Views: 268
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