exam 1

H, C, O, N, S, P

(Hey Connie, owen needs some peanuts)

long chains os sugar molecules

- plant sugar? animal sugar?

2 types

- cellulose (makes plants rigid)

-starch (stored sugar)

-- produts of photosynthesis

--plant sugar is the raw material for all macromolecules

2 common types

- glycogen - stores in liver and large muscles

- glucolse - used for energy

-- sugar molecule came from plant sugars

- energy storage

2 basic components

1.  clycerol

2. fatty acid

- go together to make lipid

long chains of amino acids (folds to form 3D structure)

- structural proteins

- regulatory proteins

- enzymes (regulate chemical reactions)

- all enzymes end in "ase"

- presence/absense of an ensyme determines whether or not a chemical reacion takes place

- ex: dark eyes and light eyes

- lock and key mechanism

- made of amino group, side group, and acid

- 20 total - all have diff side cahin and shape

lactose intolerance

- lactase = enzyme which asts on lactose

- w/out lactase sugar remaind in the digestive tract

- bacteria grow in the sugar

- bacteria produces gas = leads to cramping

- heredity - follows ethnic rules

early heart disease (FH) or Familial Hypercholesterol

- can procesa nd store only small amounts of choesterol in liver cells (normal is 70% of circulating LDL)

- diet high in fats = unstored cholesterol clogs arteries

- 1/500 have FH

- LDL = low density lipoprotein - "bad" cholesterol

    - if receptor is deffective, then cholestrol remains in blood stream

maple syrup urine disease

- inability to metabolize 3/20 amino acids

- deficiency of neccessary enzype -> amino acids build up in blood stream

    - feeding difficulties

    - lethargy - baby sleeps a lot

    - brain damage - > coma

- described in 1954

- 1/180,000 live births, 1/380 old order mennonites (tend to marry within family)

leson-nyhan syndrome (LNS)

- absencse of enzyme to recycle DNA bases

- instead they are converted into an acid which forms orange crystals in the urine

- involuntary writhing

- stress causes uncontrollable biting of fingers, lips, and shoulders

- require energy (must eat, for plants = sun)

- grow

- reproduce

- respond to stimuli

2 parts

1. cytoplasm

2. nucleoplasm (in nucleous)

outer boundary

- pores allow easy movement of small molecules

- composed of lipids

- controls activity ("brain")

- contains 2 other organelles

1. chromosomes

2. nucelolus

- genetice material

2 forms

1. chromosomes : compact rod-shaped (during cell division)

2. chromatin (long streched out form (during "normal" phase)

- memberanous structure

- connects to nucleous and spreade throughout cytoplasm

- ROUGH ER & SMOOTH ER

site of protein synthesis (making proteins)

- on Rough ER

- sugars are made

- some marcromolecues are assembled (ie: products of milk)

- small round vesicles

- capture and take apart bacteria, worn out organelles, and debris

- contain enzymes

- large white blood cells called macrophages containg many lysosomes

- store digestive enzymes

- digest fatty acids

- rid the cell of toxic peroxides

- a missing ensyme will cause some type of disorder

- cylindrical structures

- involved in cell divission

- father of genetics

- entered monastery where he taught physics and botany

- researched garden peas

- hippocrates made up

- males and females formed "pangenes" (particles) in every organ

- pangenes moved through blood to genetals

- aristotle thought up

- refuted pangenesis

- this "petential" was inherited, not particles of the body

- sperm contained "vital heat"

- idea of genetics in 1600s

- mini indiv. contained in sperm

- suitable organism for study

- remarkable insight

- seven visible features - studied 1 or 2 at a time

- accurate notes

- medel

- dominant allele and recessive allele, only one allele will be expressed.

- mroe than 2 alleles per gene

- usually b/c gene can mutate in different ways to form diff. alleles

- ex: PKU or Phynylcaptanuiria

- Phenylcaptonuria

- inborn error of metabolism where enzyme is absent and phenylalanne builds up in brain leading to irreversible brain damage, metal retardation, and seizures

- newborn screening

- special diet -> low/absent in Phe, fruits & veggies (except legumes), starchy foods okay, supplement of special formula

- affects homoreccessive indiv

- 1/ 15,000 births but varies among populations (1 in 5, 450 in Ireland)

1. classis w/ projound mental redartations

2. moderate

3. mild

4. asymtematic - excretiion of khenylalane in urine

- ex: snapdragons (red+white = pink)

- phenotype is a sort of blending of 2 alleles

- bothe expressed differently

- ex: red and white spotches on flower petals

- circular DNA in mitochondria (37 genes)

- many copies per organelle

- encode protiens that: help in assembling proteins (24) and funtion in energy production (13)

- many cause problems in muscle fatigue (produce weak and flaccid muscles, intolerance to excercise)

-inherited from mother

the inheritance of one pair of alleles occurs independent of the inheritance of the other pair

- applies onley when the genes are on different chromosomes

crossing two different genotypes of the same trait

- 2 pairs of contrasting traits

- f1: YyRr x YyRr

- what are the gametes?

- YyRr can produce 4 kinds of gametes if one assumes the segregation of the seed textur alleles occurs independently of the seed color alleles.

- normal is white, affected is black, 1/2 and 1/2 carries allele for trait but doesn not express it (carrier)

- females are circles, males are squares

- roman numerals indicate generation

- arabic numerals = indiv. in generation

- if condition due to dominant allele, every affected person should have an affected parent

- if condition due to recessive allele, an affected person could have 2 non affected parents

- secret adoptions

- insufficient data

- complacating factors (variable expressivity, incomplete penetrance, botha ffect the abiliyt of a specific genotype to preduce the exprected phenotype ... exammple: extra fingers and toes)