Exam 2

Human Biology with Angeles at Saratoga High School

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By: megan yen
Created: 2011-02-16
Size: 51 flashcards
Views: 6

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Functions of DNA

-store information

-replicate to be passed onto next generation

-undergo mutations to provide genetic diversity

Structure of DNA

-sugar and phosphate as "backbone" and bases as "rungs" of ladder

-double helix

DNA Replication

-semi-conservative (each new double helix has 1 original strand and 1 new strand)

-2 strands unwind by breaking H bonds

-complementary nucleotides added to each strand by DNA polymerase

-an enzyme seals any breaks in sugar-phosphate backbone

RNA structure

-single-stranded

-sugar-phosphate backbone

-base: instead of T, U

-found in cytoplasm and nucleus

3 Types of RNA

1. Ribosomal (rRNA): joins with proteins to form ribosomes

2. Messenger (mRNA): carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes

3. Transfer (tRNA): transfers amino acids to ribosome where they are added to a forming protein

Proteins

-made of amino acids (sequence determines shape of protein)

-synthesized at ribosomes

-important for hormones, enzymes, transport

Protein Structure

1. primary structure: single line

2. secondary structure: (alpha) helix (beta) pleated sheet

3. tertiary structure: crazy knot

DNA Transcription (1st step in Gene Expression)

-DNA read to make a mRNA in nucleus of cell

-mRNA made from DNA template and processed before leaving the nucleus

-then moves to ribosomes to be read

Codon

-every 3 bases on the mRNA

-codes for a particular amino acid in translation

Translation

-reading the mRNA to make a protein in the cytoplasm

3 steps:

1. initiation: mRNA binds to small ribosomal subunit and causes 2 ribosomal units to associate

2. Elongation: polypeptide lengthens

3. Termination: a stop codon on mRNA causes ribosome to fall off the mRNA

Regulation of Gene Expression (4 levels)

1. Transcriptional control (nucleus)

2. Posttranscriptional control (nucleus)

3. Translational control (cytoplasm)

4. Posttranslational control (cytoplasm)

Human Genome Project (HGP)

-humans consist of ~3 billion bases and 25,000 genes

Next Steps:

-functional genomics (understand how 25,000 genes function)

-comparative genomics (understand how species have evolved)

Proteomics

study of the structure, function, and interactions of cell proteins

Bioinformatics

application of computer technologies to study the genome

Gene therapy

insertion of genetic material into human cells to treat a disorder

Ex vivo therapy

cells are removed from a person, altered, and returned to the patient

In vivo therapy

gene directly inserted into an individual through a vector (virus) or directly injected to replace mutated genes or to restore normal controls over gene activity

Genetic engineering

altering DNA through recombinant DNA technology

-recombinant DNA: contains DNA from 2 or more diff. sources

Transgenic organisms

organisms that have a foreign gene inserted into them

Biotechnology

using natural biological systems to create a product or to achieve an end desired by humans

DNA technology

-gene cloning through recombinant DNA

-polymerase chain reaction (used to clone small pieces of DNA)

-DNA fingerprinting

-biotechnology products from bacteria, plants, and animals

Characteristics of cancer cells

-lack differentiation and don't contribute to body functioning

-abnormal nuclei, abnormal # of chromosomes

-unlimited ability to divide

-form tumors

-undergo angiogenesis and metastasis

3 phases in development of cancer cells

1. initiation: single cell undergoes a mutation that causes it to divide repeatedly

2. promotion: tumor develops and cells within tumor mutate

3. progression: cell mutates in such a way that allows it to invade surrounding tissue

Angiogenesis

formation of new blood vessels to supply nutrients and oxygen to tumor

Metastasis

cells move into the bloodstream or lymphatic vessels to make new tumors at distant sites from the primary tumor

Genetic basis for cancer

-proto-oncogenes: products promote the cell cycle and prevent cell deat (apoptosis)

-tumor-suppressor genes: products inhibit the cell cycle and promote apoptosis

-oncogenes: cancer causing genes, proto-oncogenes that have mutated

Types of cancer

-Carcinomas: epithelial tissue

-Adenocarcinomas: glandular epithelial cells

-Sarcomas: muscle and connective tissue

-Leukemias: blood

-Lymphoma: lymphatic tissues

Seven warning signs of cancer (CAUTION)

Change in bowel or bladder habits

A sore that doesn't heal

Unusual bleeding or discharge

Thickening or lump in breast or elsewhere

Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing

Obvious change in wart or mole

Nagging cough or hoarseness

Functions of skeletal muscles

-support body, keeping it upright

-allow for movement

-maintain constant body temp.

-assist in movement in cardiovascular and lymphatic vessels

-protect internal organs and stabilize joints

Skeletal muscle attachments

Tendon: connects muscle to bone

Origin: attachment of muscle on a stationary bone

Insertion: attachment of muscle on bone that moves

Skeletal muscle Actions

Antagonistic: muscles that work in opposite pairs

Synergistic: muscles working in groups for a common action

Muscle Cell Structure

-sarcolemma: plasma membrane

-sarcoplasm: cytoplasm

-sarcoplasmic reticulum: stores calcium

Muscle structure

-fascicles: bundles in which muscle fibers are arranged

-myofibrils: bundle of myofilaments that run the length of a fiber

-myofilaments: proteins (actin and myosin) arranged in repeating units

-sarcomeres: repeating units of actin and myosin found along a myofibril

Sarcomere

-made of 2 protein myofilments

-myosin (thick filaments shaped like a gold club)

-actin (thin filaments)

Fast-twitch muscle fiber vs. slow-twitch muscle fiber

-fast-twitch: anaerobic, explosive power, fatigues easily, light in color

-slow-twitch: aerobic, steady power, has endurance, dark in color

Creatine phosphate pathway (CP)

-fastest way to acquire ATP, but only sustains cell for seconds

-builds up when a muscle is resting

Function of the cardiovascular system

-generate blood pressure

-transport blood

-exchange of nutrients and wastes at the capillaries

-regulate blood flow as needed

Main pathway of blood in the body

heart-->arteries-->arterioles-->capillaries-->venules-->veins-->back to heart

Arteries/arterioles

-carry blood AWAY from heart

-walls have 3 layers (thin inner epithelium, thick smooth muscle layer, outer connective tissue)

Capillaries

-microscopic vessels btwn arterioles and venules

-made of 1 layer of epithelial tissue

-form beds of vessels where exchange with body cells occurs

-exchange at capillary beds mainly a result of osmotic and blood pressure

Veins/venules

-carry blood TOWARD heart

-3 layers (thin inner epithelium, thick smooth muscle layer, outer connective tissue)

-veins that carry blood against gravity have valves to keep blood flowing toward the heart

Structure of heart

-muscular organ: myocardium

-outer sack: pericardium

-2 sides (right and left) separated by a septum

-2 sets of valves (semilunar valves and atrioventricular valves

2 cardiovascular pathways in body

1. Pulmonary circuit: right side of heart that brings blood from the body to the heart and lungs

2. Systemic circuit: left side of heart that brings blood to the entire body to deliver nutrients and rid it of wastes

Systole/Diastole: how the heartbeat occurs

Systole: atria contract together followed by ventricles contracting together

Diastole: rest phase, chambers relax

How heartbeat is controlled

Internal control:

-SA node in right atrium initiates heartbeat and causes atria to contract

-impulse reaches AV node to send signal to AV bundle and Purkinje fibers that causes ventricular contraction

-impulses travel between gap junctions at intercalated disks

External control:

-heartbeat controlled by a cardiac center in the brain and hormones

Electrocardiogram (ECG)

-record of the electrical changes in the heart muscle during a cardiac cycle

Blood Pressure

-pressure against a blood vessel wall

-systolic pressure: highest pressure during blood ejection from heart

-diastolic pressure: lower pressure when ventricles relax

-average blood presure: 120/80

Blood Flow

-under highest pressure in arteries

-slower in capillaries to allow time for exchange btwn cells

-blood pressure minimal in veins/venules, but blood flow increases with the help of skeletal muscle contraction, breathing, valves

Coronary circulation

-the heart's blood supply

-small coronary arteries that supply heart

-separate from systemic and pulmonary pathways

Hepatic portal system

-system that brings blood from the digestive tract rich in amino acids and glucose to the liver

-liver synthesizes blood proteins and stores glucose as glycogen

-liver purifies blood from digestive tract

-blood returned to heart via inferior vena cava

Hypertension

-high blood pressure results when blood moves through vessels at highter rate due to arterial plaque

-lead to heart attack, stroke, kidney failure

About this deck

By: megan yen
Created: 2011-02-16
Size: 51 flashcards
Views: 6

About StudyBlue

“Simply amazing. The flash cards are smooth, there are many different types of studying tools, and there is a great search engine. I praise you on the awesomeness.”
Dennis