Exam 2
Communication Arts 275 with Tamborini at Michigan State University
About this deck
By: Janeva Mammina
Textbook:
Fundamentals of Media Effects
Created: 2010-11-16
Size: 64 flashcards
Views: 87
Textbook:
Fundamentals of Media EffectsCreated: 2010-11-16
Size: 64 flashcards
Views: 87
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9: Characteristics of the Modern Mass Media Audience
Large, dispersed, always shifting, individualized, privatized.
Audience as Market:
- Aggregate of individual consumer
- Boundaries based on economic criteria
- Members are unrelated and without shared identity
- Formation is temporary
9: Five Layer Model
(Clausse, 1969) Demonstrates how most communication only reaches a small fraction of it's potential attention and impact.
- Messages Offered
- Messages Receivable
- Message Received
- Message Registered
- Message Internalized
9: Audience Research Traditions/Schools
Structural: media and social system as primary determinants to
obtain reliable estimates of audience size
Behavioral (Functional): individual needs and circumstances to
find media effects and uses
Social-Cultural: concerned with Pop Culture
9: Concepts of Audience Reach
1. Potential Audience
2. Paying Audience
3. Attentive Audience (how big of an audience message reaches)
4. Internal Audience (attention to particular content)
5. Cumulative Audience (percentage reached)
6. Target Audience
9: Four Main Types of Audiences
- Audience as a Group
- Gratification Set as Audience
- The Medium Audience
- Audience as Defined by Content
10: Uses and Gratifications Model
Different from early theories that emphasized passive audience/strong effects.
Evolved from research of Media Functions
Lasswell's Societal-Level Functions of Mass Media
Three major functions that media should serve in society:
1. Survey the environment (inform)
2. Correlation of environmental parts (interpret/guide)
3. Transmit social norms and customs (educate)
Other functions that media does serve:
Entertain, para-social interaction, escape, anxiety reduction..
10: Assumptions of the U&G Model
1. Assumes a more active audience
People choose what media they consume
They make choices based on:
differing needs
media attributes
potential uses
2. Media are used for gratifications
3. Social and psychological factors mediate/moderate people's com behavior
10: Assumptions of the U&G Model (Continued)
4. Media compete with other alternatives for selection and use
Viewers must attend to be affected
5. Differences among audience members cause each person to:
Seek out different messages
Use those messages differently
Respond to them differently
10: Five Parts of Research Focus
1. the social and psychological origins of needs lead to
2. expectations of mass media resulting in
3. differential patterns of media exposure,
4. needs gratifications, and
5. other consequences
10: Three Objectives of U&G
1. Explain how media use gratifies needs
2. Understand motives for media behavior
3. Identify functions or consequences
resulting from needs, motives, and exposure
10: Models to Explain Media Uses and Effects from the U&G Perspective
The Transactional Model
The Gratification Seeking and Audience Activity Model
The Expectancy-Value Model
The Uses and Dependency Model
10: The Transactional Model
Two factors combine to produce an effect:
1. Characteristics of the message
2. Psychological orientation of the audience
Powerful effect occurs only when the user's orientation permits it.
10: The Gratification-Seeking and Audience Activity Model
Different factors influence uses and effects
Particularly what users select
Attention, reaction, and behavioral intentions of the viewer are directed by:
Particular kinds of gratification sought by the viewer
The viewer's attitude and involvement with the message
Emphasis on a variety of different factors that influence choice
based on involvement and engagement
10: The Expectancy-Value Model
Examines the use of the media
Gratifications sought and obtained
Outcomes that are expected
Explains a person's behavior, intentions and attitudes as a function of:
Expectancy and Evaluation
Focuses on pos and neg expectancy violations and how they influence
Positive example: do better than what people expect
low expectations violated in a positive manner
10: The Uses and Dependency Model
Dependency (on media) is the result of two factors:
1. Viewer's motives for obtaining gratifications
2. The availability of viewing alternatives
Proposes that certain elements in the media system cause people to use and depend upon the media.
This strengthens message effects
10: U&G Research: A Brief History
1940s: Studies identify motives for listening to certain radio programs (Herzog)
1970s: Early U&G researchers categorized the various motives for media use:
Learning, habit, companionship, arousal, relaxation, escape, pass time
Many different typologies (motives) were developed
Suggested that media uses and effects should be linked
Argue that use determines effect
10: U&G Research: Recent
Links viewing with attitudes towards the media
Compares motives for using media with viewing particular content
Identifies social and psychological characteristics that influence media use
10: U&G Research: Other
How different backgrounds, motives, and levels of exposure have affected outcomes
Characteristics and motives of particular media users
Gratifications from media use
Personality traits that predict media use
10: Criticisms of U&G
Too individualistic
No synthesized research findings
Lack of clarity among key concepts
Differences in the meaning of key concepts
The active audience and use of self-reporting
11: Piaget's Cognitive Development Stages
Sensorimotor (birth-2)
Pre-operational (2-7)
Concrete Operational (7-11)
Formal Operational (11+)
11: Sensorimotor Stage
(Birth-2) Learning language/discovering physical world
Learn:
Objects exist outside themselves
Things exist even when they can't be seen
Some things cause other things to happen
TV: sights/color and sounds/voices/music
Teletubbies, Yo Gabba Gabba
11: Pre-Operational Stage
(2-7)
Utilize symbols to represent meaning
Make guesses about motives for behavior
Attribute relational connections
Conservation
Egocentrism
TV: short stories and cartoons
Caillou, Bob the Builder, Thomas the Train
11: Concrete Operational Stage
(7-11)
Conservation tasking
Mental recreations: planning, scheming
Perspective taking of others
TV: half hour/hour shows, story-line, simple problem-solution, humor
iCarly, Hannah Montana, Sponge Bob
11: Formal Operational Stage
(11-Death)
Abstract thinking
Verbal (logical/axiomatic) reasoning
Geometric theorems
TV: mystery, crime, complex social problems, sci-fi, relationships
11: Kohlberg's Moral Development Stages
Difference between right and wrong
1. Pre-Conventional (2-9)
punishment/reward
morality
self-interest and orientation
2. Conventional (10-death for 80%)
being good and caring
following rules
duty to society
interpersonal harmony and conformity
3. Post-Conventional (20-death for 20%)
values beyond simple laws
universal ethics
solve moral dilemmas
Kohlberg said most people do not get here
11: TV's Effects on Children
Viewing increases until children start school.
It then tapers off.
College: less TV
Adult Life: more TV
2-5 years: 32 hours/week
6-11 years: 28 hours/week
(Nielson, 2009)
11: Positive Effects of 'Action Video Games
- Heightens ability to view small details
- Better control of attention
- Choose amount many options more rapidly
- Better visual short-term memory
- More flexibility in task switching
11: Cognitive Effects of Children and TV
- Technology and cognitive development
- Good or bad?
- Well that depends
- “Mozart effect”
- Flynn effect
- Distraction
- People who multitask cant filter irrelevant information
11: Issues with Children and Media
Children are malleable
Thousands of research articles on Children and TV
Displacement
AAP recommends less than two hours daily
Beliefs lead to emotions, which lead to behaviors
Isn't just one 'children' audience
Really, three or four child audiences
11: What Children 'Get' from TV
Infants: language, objects, tasks
Toddlers: language, behavior, form over content
Grade Schoolers: stories, roles
Teens: social relations, sexuality
Learning and Social Cues:
Children find out from TV:
occupations, fashion, politics/world, social relationships
11: Displacement Hypothesis
Opportunity Costs:
(Selnow/Raynolds, 1981)
Media use reduces chances of doing something else
TV viewing affects reading ability
Relationship between weight and TV viewing
Away: clubs, music, sports, religion
Home: sleep, study, hobbies
12: Cultural Indicators Project
(Gerbner, 1967)
Investigated the 'Cultivation' Effect.
Three Components of Project:
1. Institutional Process Analysis: examines productions, management and distribution of media messages
2. Cultivation Analysis: investigates images in media content
3. Message System Analysis: compares social perceptions of heavy vs. light TV viewers
12: Cultivation Effect/Theory
(Gerbner, 1967)
Over time, heavy viewers of TV develop views of the world similar to what they see on TV. Example: overestimation of real-world crime statistics because TV portrays
lots of violence/crime
12: Clark's Four-Stage Progression of Minority Representation
(For minority groups in media)
1. Non-Recognition: not represented in media
2. Ridicule: represented as a joke/not taken seriously
3. Regulation: appear as 'protectors' of existing order
(the 'black cop')
4. Respect: full range of roles represented
12: Minority Representations Today
African-Americans are overrepresented
Other minorities underrepresented (Latino, Asian..)
More minorities in news since 1970s
Also true in entertainment and advertising
White viewers tend to stereotype minorities based on media messages and direct contact with people
Children who watch more violent TV are more likely to have negative stereotypes of African-Americans
12: Stereotype
A standardized mental picture of a group that represents an over-simplification
1. Useful generalizations to organize info cognitively (mental models)
2. Not inherently evil
3. Distort generalizations in a negative and dysfunctional direction
12: Mean World Index?
Mathematical analysis of how violent images in the media affect people. The study correlates the content of the programs with the social distribution of viewers, calculating percentages and a numerical index based on the responses of each group. The characteristics taken into account include those portrayed on screen and those traits spread across the audience. These characteristics include race, gender, and economic status.
12: Mean World Index?
- Survey Methods of Content Analysis of TV Images
- (Viewer's Perception)
- Three methods to describe minority characterization
- Counting characters of various races
- Assessing character significance
- Assessing similarities, differences, and interactions between different races
13: Social Cognitive Theory
Explains human thoughts and actions as a result of:
Behavior
Personal Characteristics (IQ, sex, race..)
Environmental Factors or Events
Triadic Reciprocal Causation: when the above three factors interact to determine each other
Bandura's social learning experiment:
Bobo Doll Study
13: Self-Reflective Modes of SCT
1. Enactive Mode: person assesses the agreement between thoughts and the results of actions
2. Vicarious Mode: observing another's experiences and their outcomes to confirm/disprove the accuracy of thoughts
3. Persuasory Mode: being persuaded due to someone else's decision
4. Logical Mode: Using previously acquired rules of inference for verification
13: Pro-Social and Anti-Social Behaviors?
Pro: altruism, or empathy and making amends for wrongs
Anti: frequent exposure to aggression
13: Modeling
Imitating or reenacting a viewed and observed behavior
Abstract Modeling: rules of pre-learned behavior generate new behavior in related situations
13: Priming
Occurs when exposure to mediated com activates related thoughts stored in the mind of an audience member.
Based on Cognitive Neo-association
Networks of related thoughts
Stimuli trigger chains of mental activations
13: Theoretical Bases for Priming
Storage-Bin Model: memory considered a large storage-bin
Recently primed concepts are considered strongest
Storage-Battery Model: frequently primed concepts are strongest
Synapse-View Model: time determines strength.
Short-run: recent primes are more important
Long-run: frequency of primes can be strongest
14: Gerbner's Contribution to Mass Communication Studies
Message System Analysis: analyzing/coding samples of US network dramas
(Part of Cultural Indicators Project, which examined Cultivation Effects)
Violence Profile: Assesses number of violent actions, type of violence,
settings, victims, etc. (Not violence context)
One of the most widely used measures of violence on network TV
Started in 1967. New analysis annually.
14: Findings of Message System Analysis
(Gerbner)
First Ten Years: 8/10 programs contained violent content
6/10 characters involved in violent acts
Children's cartoons contain more violence than any other type of shows
14: Significance of Telecommunications Act of 1996
Mandatory installation of V-chip in new TV models
Can block certain programs (violence, sex, language)
Required TV industry to rate programs
Based on suitability for age levels
14: Children's TV Act of 1990?
Enacted to enhance TV's potential to teach the nation's children valuable info and skills through 'core' educational programming
Problems could Include:
No real penalties for non-compliance
No room for entertainment- which brings in ratings
Too much educational and informational content
Nothing memorable to watch
14: National TV Violence Study
Two main aspects of violence recorded:
1. Context of violent acts
2. Demographics of perpetrators and victims
14: Findings of National TV Violence Study
Much of TV violence glamorized
Most continues to be sanitized
no harm shown
Much trivial aggression still trivialized
Few programs with anti-violence themes
About 60% of programs contain violence
Violence during prime time has increased
Cartoons have most violence
14: Three Impact Levels of Media Violence
1. Behavioral Effects:
Catharsis: harmlessly venting aggressive impulses
Arousal: excitement
Disinhibition: less regard for social-sanctions
Imitation: observational learning
Desensitization:
2. Emotional Effects:
Example: being frightened by a horror movie
3. Cognitive Effects:
When a viewers belief about the real-world is changed
15: Legal Definition of Obscenity
Must Possess Three Criteria:
1. Material appeals to a prurient (restless desire) interest in sex
2. Material is patently offensive of beyond the contemporary community standards regarding depictions of sexual content or activity
3. Material as a whole lacks 'serious literacy, artistic, political, or scientific value'
15: Sexual Content
All types of media products that either show or imply sexual acts of make sexual references or innuendos
Occurs at many levels of intensity
Music Videos: Over 50% contain sexual content
X-Rated Videos: Four Major Themes
Reciprocity, domination, exploitation, autoeroticism
15: Pornography
Graphic and explicit depictions of sexual activity
Government Studies on the Effects of Pornography:
Concluded there was no known harm
15: Kaiser Foundation's Findings about Sexual Content in Media
Talk of sex on TV shows occurs more than sex actually does
Teen sex usually associated with risk
27% of shows showed explicit sexual behavior
10% depicted or implied intercourse
50% involved people in relationships
15: Sexual Content in Media and Physiological Arousal
Studies have found link
Explicit sexual content usually leads to temporary arousal
More arousal in males
Heavy exposure habituates/familiarizes the effects
May result in:
arousal, changes in attitudes, values and behaviors, desensitization
15: Slasher Films and Effects
R-rated movie, usually contains a great deal of violence and often includes erotic sex
Effects on Audiences: men become desensitized
16: News
Newsworthiness: timeliness, proximity, consequence, and human interest
within 24 hours
Crisis News: coverage of a disaster/emergency
Soft News: human interest and news stories
not considered fast breaking
16: Hard News
Event disclosed in last 24 hours that treats issue of ongoing concern
Five Characteristics:
1. Personalized: happened to real people
2. Dramatic, controversial, violent
3. Actual and concrete
4. Novel or devient
5. Linked to issues of ongoing concern
16: Crisis News
Specific issue of Hard News
Events that pose an immediate and serious threat to:
life, property, or peace of mind
Affect a vast number of people
Three Effects:
1. News Diffusion: examines how quickly and in what ways news spreads.
Influencers: importance/impact, release timing, demographics of audience
2. Effects on media function and activity.
Extended coverage intended to inform and comfort people who are grieving
3. Rally effects: during time of external threat, people join forces
16: Soft News
Human interest stories
Not considered 'fast-breaking'
16: Factors that Influence Recall of Info from Media
Age, educational level, social class
Personal interest
Background knowledge of news events
Story structure (short, drama, novel)
Disturbing visual materials
Research shows that recall of news is generally poor
16: Agenda Setting (Original)
Media Gatekeepers decide what news to cover
Media presents issues in varying degrees of importance
Shapes importance people attach to issues
Media determine importance people place on issues
Public agenda reflects media's agenda
16: Agenda Setting (Revised)
'Agenda Setting process is an open ongoing competition among issue proponents to gain attention of media professionals, the public, and policy elites' - Rogers
Three Type of Studies:
1. Media Agenda Setting
2. Public Agenda Setting
3. Policy Agenda Setting
About this deck
By: Janeva Mammina
Textbook: Fundamentals of Media Effects
Created: 2010-11-16
Size: 64 flashcards
Views: 87
Textbook:
Fundamentals of Media EffectsCreated: 2010-11-16
Size: 64 flashcards
Views: 87
About StudyBlue
STUDYBLUE makes things that make you better at school.
Things like online flashcards with photos and audio.
Things like personalized quizzes and friendly reminders about when (and what) to study next.
Think of it as a digital backpack™: access to all of your study materials online and on your phone.
STUDYBLUE exists to make studying efficient and effective for every student, for free. Join us.
“I have been getting MUCH better grades on all my tests for school. Flash cards, notes, and quizzes are great on here. Thanks!”
Kathy
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