exam 2

Heat

energy produced by moving particles, the moving particles affect type of heat and palatability

Conduction

Heating from molecule to molecule, ex open flame on a pan. Heat transfers to adjacent molecules

Conductors

Good conductors- cast iron (heavy, and rust). Copper (discolors) and Aluminum (May be linked with Alzheimer)
Poor Conductors- glass and steel

Convection

heat transferred by movement, most common heating technique
heating by movement of hot air or liquid
ex, conventional oven or boiling water

Radiation

Form of waters that move away from original source, flow from source. ex roasting marshmallows steak on bbq= broiling

Microwaving

Type of radiation, water is polar
Positive ends line up with negative ends and bounce back and forth creating friction which makes heat
Magnetron -> radiation; heats food because of water polarity

Induction

high cost
most effective and fastest way to heat food
Magnet wave produced when cooking, polar pans prevent hot/burning when touching

Types of Leavening

Air- small amount of leavening in all flour mixtures (creaming fat and sugar, sifting dry ingredients, using egg white foam)
ex, angel food cake mostly needs air/leavening
Steam- second physical leavener, it is a leavening source for popovers, cream puffs and pastries

Biological leavening agent

Yeast- yeast activity: knead- unique mixing/ stirring development of flour

Typical grain

caryopses- every grain will have these 4 components ( husk, bran, endosperm, germ)
Chaft (seperating the wheat from the chaft) serve as protection to the growing grain

Parts of typical grain

Aleurone- highin protein, vitamins, minerals. Part of endosperm, when you remove bran you remove protein content
Endosperm- rich in digestible carbs
Germ- reproductive part of plant
Bran- source of indigestible fiber

Types of wheat flour***

difficult to produce bread when sing whole wheat flour that will achieve equal volume then than it is using an enriched flour- soley has to do with amount of protein potential (does not have enough gluten)
Whole wheat- (graham flour), white (bread powder), bread, cake instantized, self-rising, all purpose
Pastry- coarse
Semolina- durum wheat: variety of wheat high in protein
Whole wheat
Graham flour
White
Used by bakers
Bread
High gluten content
Cake
Pastry
Less finely ground than cake flour
Instantized
dextrinized
Self-rising
+ leavening agent
All-purpose
Semolina
Made from durum wheat
Used to make pasta

Wheat flour components

Glutenin and gliadin are 2 proteins, any movement of flour with any mixer produce gluten (blender, whisk, beater)

Wheat flour components

Gluten is elastic like rubber band- the more you manipulate the dough(mix, stir) the stronger more elastic the gluten becomes
Since gluten is a protein when heat is applied it denatures/ decogaulize( changes physical structure)- get no more rising unless you didn't measure correctly by adding to much leavener

Gluten Formation

1st you hydrate it then knead it= physical manipulation

Flour

flour provides starch and protein, and crumb formation, amylose and leavening process
MAJOR: structure in form of gluten

Liquid

creates gluten, acts as a solvent

Eggs, if included

Adds complete protein and add nutritional value and structure
Fat found in yolk, contributes flavor, begins to effect the elasticity in gluten
Fat makes gluten slippery!** origin of the term shortening (fat will shorten gluten strands in the baking process, since fat makes gluten slippery in the expansion of gas the gluten does not achieve its max volume but still attains volume

Fat

provides flavor
Either creates crumbs product (cake) or flaky one (pull layers off)
Shortening is important, contributes to palatability of baked product, elastic gluten is tough to palate: if short in gluten/fat it is more tender

Sugar

Provides for for yest to grow.
Takes longer in oven for mixture that contains sugar to fully set the gluten.
Sugar is hydroscopic: sugar will attract moisture: will not evaporate liquid as fast.
To caramelize means to brown.
Sugars and fats work together in tenderness

Caramelization

Heat sugar -> melts -> white, yellow, brown -> charcoal black
Maillard reaction- affects of heat on protein

Salt/Sugar in flour mixtures

Effects the production of CO2 by yeast.
Too much salt -> stops growth of yeast

Leavening Agent

ex. when pizza has a bubble

Yeast Bread

Some donuts: more tender then bread and rolls

Bread making equipment

Manipulate flour to get gluten (kneading).

Breach Machines

yeast MUST be protected from direct heat because yeast will be killed an wont leaven.
Some have yeast dispenser if not add yeast in middle of dry ingredients

Amylose and Amelopectin

Burnt bread if apply heat for too long

Quick breads

Don't require proofing time to make CO2 for leavening.
Process- 2 bowls -> mix each with very few strokes -> combine.
Need very little gluten development**.
ex, muffins- rounded top.
Peaks: large air pockets/tunnels, too much gluten/too many strokes

Biscuits

Cutting of the fat: not mixing -> then ad liquid and knead very gently= flaky.
Fat will melt as heat is provided/ large sheets of gluten separated if use electric mixer.
CO2 cannot escape thro fat

Prep of cakes

foam method

types of wheat

winter- hard wheat, bread flour; high protein content (glutenin and gliadin)
spring- soft wheat- cake flour; low in protein

Breakfast cereals

Shape depends on extrusion equipment ex. o's flakes
Production rollers**-
heated rollers are in tandem and rotate as grain is poured into it; cornels are being flattened and dextronized because of heat
Begin to desterilize because of heat- common ways oats are produced btw of heated rollers

Additional forms of Wheat

Couscous-Refined wheat in a granular paste, made from endosperms, no need to cookm hot water and pine
Groats- wheat berries, not popular, starch substitute, whole wheat kernels which were not milled.
Cracked Wheat- exposure of endosperms Bulgur: wheat berries ground into smaller pieces
Rolled wheat
Flattened wheat berries between heated rollers
Bulgur
Cracked wheat partially cooked
Farina
Granulated endosperm, fine texture
Farro
Ancestor of modern wheat, AKA spelt

Wheat grass

young tender wheat shoots
show to be very healthy

Pasta

Produced by durum wheat
made from semolina flour
Prepared using moist heat to gelantize the starch and denature the protein

Corn

Cornmeal- yellow, coarsely ground corn
Cornstarch- white, finely ground endosperm
Hominy- white with granular look, endosperm soaked in lye
Grits- coarsely ground hominy

Rice

Polished rice= endosperm of rice
Brown rice- whole grain (bran, endosperm, germ)
Enriched rice- milled and polished, white powdery surface, added to enrich (B complex vitamin)

Other forms of rice

converted rice- partially cooked under pressure to force premix into grain, allows handling similar to pasta
instant rice- totally cooked and dehydrated, used in instant mixes, just add water
Arborio rice- italian used in making risotto
Basmati rice- extra long grain used in India
Jasmine rice- long grain from thailand
very fragrant, more delicate floral flavor

More Rice

preseasoned mixes- ex- rice a roni, combines rice with seasonings
flour- used as a wheat substitute for allergies
Starch- used for allergies in producing gels
Oil- polyunsaturated , gaining in popularity
Wine- Sake

Wild rice is not rice.

Mahnoma = ?the good berry?

Oatmeal

heart healthy food
Active agent beta glucan, a soluble fiber (dissolvable in water) in oats.
Consumed within a lowered fat diet, moderately reduces serum cholesterol

Oats

only whole grain available
pericarp, hull, husk- in milling hull and husk are partially removed- Known as groats
Groats flattened between heated rollers are rolled oats
Quick cooking oats are cut before rolling
Regular or old-fashioned oats are rolled without cutting
Instant oats are rolled extremely thin

Barley

Hulled barley- enclosed by a tough hull that is removed
Pearled barley- bran is removed
Malt- sprouted barley dried to stop growth
enzymes present convert starch to sugars (maltose)
used in alcoholic drinks

Rarer Waves of Grain

Amaranth
Kamut
quinoa
Millet
Sorghum
Rye
Triticale
buckwheat

Functional Foods

foods that may provide a health benefit beyond basic nutrition
functional food molecules have been removed for soy

Nutraceuticals

is not a generic name: create better health for long periods of time

Phytochemicals

chemopreventive agents assumed to prevent or treat specific diseases and/or enhance health
healthier for longer period of time
Low( fruits/veggies)= energy and fiber sources
High (toxic plants)= potentially harmful/potent herbal medicines

Types of functional foods
unmodified whole foods

naturally unmodified ex. oats fruits/veggies, yogurt (good food for diarrhea/constipation), nuts
yogurt is milk that has been incubated with benine bacteria to create protein gel

Types of functional foods
Modified foods

fortified or enriched foods , such as high fiber cereals, Ca-fortified orange juice , flour with folate

Types of functional foods
New foods created for functional food benefits

Soy burgers, spreads with plant stanols which are specifically designed to control cholesterol
not all soy is good

Types of functional foods
Foods produced through biotechnology

Increased content of certain nutrients
lycopene in tomatoes
carotinoids in potatoes

Role of oxygen in the body

Oxygen is essential for life
O2 is reguired for metabolic reactions, aerobic respiration, cellular metabolism.
When O2 is used by cells, free radicals are created

Free radicals

Free radicals are compounds with an unpaired electron in its outer orbit
Missing electron looks to pair up
Believed to cause tissue damage
Antioxidant works again, O2 provides missing electron: comes from fruits and veggies

Role of O2 outside the body

Two common food reactions
Enzymatic oxidative browning of apples, bananas
Dip fruit in lemon juice(oj) -> fruit does not brown
Vit C is an antioxidant
Oxidative rancidity of veggie oils
Keeps oil tightly closed to prevent O2 from entering
Vit E is an antioxidant

Role of antioxidants in the body

An antioxidant donates an election to a free radical causing the compound to become stable
Believed over time, free radical production may predispose a person to
Cancer
Artery and heart disease
Deterioration that accompanies aging
Enough is still not known

Antioxidants in foods

Carotinoids- alpha, beta gamma, orange-yellow pigment found in food
Zeaxanthin,
Found in leafy green veggies
Better to consume vits/minerals from foods rather than supplements

Luetein

May delay age-related macular degeneration of the eye
Found in carotinoid-rich foods

Lycopene

reduces prostate cancer
A carotinoid
Frequency of consumption at least 2 servings peer week reduced risk
tomatoes
red fruits. veggies

Vitamin C

Citrus fruits major source
The fresher the fruit/veggie is the more vitamin C
Ascorbic acid

Vitamin E

Alpha tocopherol
Gamma tocopherol
Some evidence in reducing incidence of prostate cancer
Naturally occurring in veggie oils: helps prevent oxidation of oil

Flavonoids

Group of blue, purple-ish, red colors (berries)
Anthozanthins: white/yellow corns

Tomatoes

trying to create foods with stronger antioxidant content -> high ORAC

Catechins

Tea- black, green, oolong
Contain flavonoid and other polyphenols

Quercetin

Kind of white in color( interior of apples)
Anti tumor properties
Anti-inflammatory- inhibits manufacture and release of histamine
ex- apples, wine, onions, black and green teas

Resveratrol

Shown to be anti-cancer in three phases- stops cancer from starting, stops cancer after it begins, and stops progression
Prevention of cardiovascular disease
ex, red wine, red grapes, peanuts, red grape juice

Glucosinolates

Sulphoraphane- cruciferous veggies which smell when you cook them
ex, broccoli, cauliflower, cabbage, collard greens, kale
Highest content in broccoli sprouts
Heating changes- Glucosinolates are converted to indoles and isothiocyanates when heated or chewed

Organic Acids

Caffeic (coffee), ferulic (fruits.veggies), ellagic, phytic( whole grain mineral)
Linked with reduction of certain types of cancers and cardiovascular diseases
Phytic acid found in whole grain cereals

Phytoestrogens

Associated with reduction of menopausal symptoms
Lowers LDL cholesterol, total cholesterol and serum triglycerides
ex, soybeans, nuts, apples

Types of Phytoestrogens

Isoflavones- Daidzein, genestein, glycitein (soybeans, soy protein foods)
may reduce menopausal symptoms (hot flashes)
protection from breast/prostate cancers
protect bone after menopause
Phytosterols- Beta-sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol (corn, soy, wheat)
support normal cholesterol levels
lowers blood cholesterol by inhibiting absorption
Saponins- may lower LDL cholesterol (soy, other legumes)
contain anti-cancer enzymes
Lignans- Flax seed

Flax Seed/ Flax Seed Oil

Contains omega-3 fatty acids, alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), fiber (soluble and insoluble, found in seeds not oil), and phyoestrogen
has cardiovascular benefits

Allyl Sulfides

Bulb veggies such as garlic cloves, onions, chives, scallions
May improve immunity to disease, lower LDL cholesterol, and reduce risks of certain cancers

Fatty Acids

Omega-3 fatty acid found in fat fish,
2 major acids are DHA ( oj, milk, infant/toddler formula) and EPA which improve mental functioning and visual functioning

Prebiotics

category of functional foods, milk does contain benign materials
Nondigestible food component that may stimulate enzyme production which effects growth and activity of ?good? bacteria in small intestine
Fructo-opigosaccharides (FOS) in Jerusalem artichoke, shallots, onion powder

Probiotic

Live bacteria which improve the balance of ?good? bacteria in the small intestine
Lactobacillus in yogurt (active culture)
good prevention of disease

Synbiotic

Products with both prebiotic and probiotic components

Dietary Fiber

insoluble fiber- reduce risk of breast/ colon cancer
Beta glucan- reduces risk of cardiovascular diseases
Whole grains- Reduce risk of CVD

Veggies

Plants or parts of plants which are used as food.
Served raw or heated, they supply color, flavor, texture, and nutrients to the human diet.
Nuts and berries also contribute to veggie intake

Primary nutrients in vegetables

Vitamin A (beta carotene)
Vitamin C
Minerals
Other vitamins (folate)
Fiber
Easily oxidized (folate comes from leaves or plants, fiber-soluble/insoluble)

Vegetable consumption appears to reduce cancer risk

veggie consumption is better eaten raw then cooked
Allium vegetables (onions, garlic, red pepper)
Carrots
Green vegetables
Cruciferous vegetables (cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts)
tomatoes

Structure of Plant

Cell wall= semi-permeable, allows matter to go in and out of cell
Fibrous- (dietary fiber/ roughage)
Cellulose- found in greater proportion in rind or peel
Pectic compounds- found between cells
Water concentration inside and outside of veggie cell
Pectin- glue that holds the cells together
Lignin- ( very compact cellulose- related to wood
Hemicellulose
Veggie gums- bottom of fresh broccoli stalks, indigestible, occupies space (like sponge; hold moisture without adding calories which affects volume of product), degrigation( puddle of loose pectic compounds) - indigestible

Plant Tissue Structure

Dermal tissue- outer rind/secondary cell wall cells, tough
3

Vascular system of plant

Photosynthesis occurs in leaves=sugars, low in calories; indigestible
Transport- carries water from roots to leaves, carries carbs from site of production to site of storage
Sometime eaten- celery, asparagus

Parenchyma Cell

functional food properties
Contains contents of cell walls (organelles)
Major food source of plant structure.
Contains pulp, cytoplasm, organelles
crunch biting into carrot or celery, tissue releasing air from between cell walls

Structure of Parenchyma Cell

Cell wall:
Primary?loosely associated cellulose
Secondary?condensed cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, gums
Cytoplasm: sticky gel-like compound found within the cell wall.
Surrounds and bathes the organelles (plastids)

Types of Plastids

Chloroplasts- contain chlorophyll, where photosynthesis takes place, blue/green
Chromoplasts- contain carotonoid pigments, yellow
Leucoplasts- location of starch storage
Vaculoe- major site for flavonoid pigments, stores- water, flavors, sugars, salts, organic acids, and anthocyanins

Turgor

only really used for fruits/veggies
Term applied to describe the firmness of a cell based upon its water content
Relates to juiciness (vs. dryness)
Crunch or snap of raw vegetables

Intercellular Space

Veggie cells of irregular space
Pectic substances
Hemicellulose- provides firmness, veggie cells stick together, 10-25% air space responsible for crispiness

Pectic Substances

Pectic- generic term used to identify polysaccharides found in fruits/veggies, indigestible carb compound (cement gels together)
Protopectin- large insoluble molecule
Pectin (pectinic acid)- produced by enzymatic action during ripening (water soluble)
Pectic acid- found in overripe fruits/ veggies, soft

Classification of Vegetables

Classified by the part of the plant which is usually consumed.

Leaves

Known to snap/tugor
Know for vitamin A value (significant)
Very little digestible carbs, low calories
ex- cabbage,spinach, Brussels sprouts

Seeds

Contain germ- ex, corn, peas and green beans
Known for high protein and fat calories, high digestible carb content, higher in calories
4kilacal/gram= digestible carbs**

Vegetable Fruit

Variable calorie content**
Avocado- high in fat
Produced from the ripened ovaries of flowering plants. ex- cucumber, eggplant pumpkin, tomato, green pepper
Variable simple and complex digestible carbohydrate content (high in water)

Flowers

Broccoli and cauliflower majors
Known for- AKA cruciferous, sulforaphane, high water content, low digestible carb content, and lowin calories

Stems

Transport system of plant
Celery
asparagus
Known for:
Structure
High in indigestible carbohydrate
High in water
Low in Calories

Roots, Tubers

Storage of products of photosynthesis
Potato, yam, sweet potato
Carrot, beet,parsnip
Known for:
Amylose, amylopectin content
High in Calories

Bulbs

In between calorie content
Grown underground
Consists of layers- ex- onion, garlic, leek, shallot
Known for- Allyic sulfide content, moderate digestible carb content, slightly sweet

Vegetable Pigments

Responsible for color
New evidence of functional food properties
Carotonoids- red, orange, yellow
Chlorophyll- green
Flavonoids- often different colors, varies from yellow-purple

Chlorophyll

Green
Present in chloroplasts
Responsible for photosynthesis- plant cell uses CO2 and water to synthesize carbs
Insoluble in water- If heating water appears green (indicates cell wall rupture or cut)

Effect of Heat on Chlorophyll

Heat+Acid (present in green veggie) (accelerated by lip on pan), acid found in vacuoles alters green color to an olive green but there is no change in nutritonal value (lessens vitamin C when cooked)
Baking Soda is frowned upon and is bad for veggies
When heat is applied= degrade (chlorophyllin)
Destroys B complex vitamins
Affects texture

Carotinoids

Yellow-orange color
Alpha, beta, gamma ? yellow-orange
Lycopene?red-orange
xanthophyll--yellow
Beta carotene is converted to vitamin A in the body

Carotinoid Stability

Very slightly soluble in water
Susceptible to oxidation
Heat + acid isomers of carotene (some are yellow)
Heat + alkaline no effect

Betalains

Heat+Acid -> bright red= remain red when acid is present
Highly soluble in water
Found in beets
Heat + alkaline = yellow

Flavonoid Pigments (Flavones)

Vacuoles
Anthocyanin- red= acid, purple= base,
Anthoxanthin- white, yellow

Anthocyanin

Heat+Acid= red
Heat+alkaline= purple
Found in cytoplasm
Soluble in water
Proanthocyanidin?found in cranberries
Yellow-white, prevents E. coli from attaching to cells of the human urinary tract

Anthoxanthin

Found in white potato, turnip
Soluble in water
Heat + acid = white
Heat + alkaline = yellow
Fe -> green, brown

Vegetable Preparation

Prepreparation: wash?thoroughly wash using a brush, a vegetable wash product, mild soap for those vegetables which can withstand it.
Peel, slice, cut?some vegetables and fruits (white potato, apple, banana) will brown after exposure to air
Prepreparation is just as important as preparation
MUST be washed

Enzymatic oxidative browning

Oxygen
Polyphenolase
Phenol
Acid containing ingredients will reduce browning, ex- vinegar, lemon juice, oj

Effect of Heat on Vegetables

Changes occur- texture ( starch gelantinizes, cellulose softens, water is lost), Flavor ( flavor rich components in organic acids, S-compounds, salts, volatile oils, carbs, and phenolic compounds), Odor ( cruciferous and allium vegetables are harsh), Color (pH, heat and metals affect), Nutrients (most are water soluble, use mineral water in preperation).
Cellulose will NEVER become digestible when heat is applied; softens**
Starch will absorb water and swell**

Effect of heat on texture

Reduces bulk
Increases tenderness
Lignan?not softened by heat
ex- Woody center of carrot,
White end of asparagus
End of broccoli

Effect of pH on heating vegetables

Not recommended to add bases but with low pH
pH 4.0 to 4.5 retards softening
Pectic substances are least soluble
Above or below this pH tissues will soften
Adding baking soda oversoftens tissues and destroys nutrients

Hard Water

Ca or Mg
Form insoluble complexes with pectins
Interfere with softening
Vegetables remain hard

Cooking time*****

Short time is preferred
Texture should be tender-crisp
More likely to retain flavor, color and nutrients
Long time causes greater solution of pectic substances and softening of cellulose
Not raw but some degree of turgor

Flavor of Vegetables

Range from mild to distinct
Due to varying degrees of organic compounds
Aldehydes
Alcohol
Ketones
Organic acids
Sulfur
Phenolic compounds
Starch
sugar

Flavor is volatile

Escapes into air and will smell it
Ideally heat without lid because acids will be released
Flavor loss is heightened by prolonged cooking and too much water
Long heating develops strong S flavor in cabbage and cruciferous vegetables, allium containing vegetables
Heat until fork-tender, with lid off

Heating Vegetables

Fork tender= resistance, some turgor
Most cooked vegetables are steamed
Small amount of water is brought to a boil
Add vegetables, cover, 5-10 minutes
Fork tender
Tender-crisp

Additional Heating of Vegetables

Bake
Dry heat
Usually hearty vegetable, like potato
Stir-fry
Small amount of fat
Continuous motion to prevent sticking
Deep fat fry
Popular
Fat is absorbed by vegetable

Fruits

Plant tissue used for food which develop from blossoms to become ripened ovaries and adjacent tissues
A class of veggies
Classed separately from veggies because of sweetness, juiciness, fragrant and aromatic

Classification of Fruits

Simple- develop from single ovary of flower. ex- citrus, drupes, pomes
Aggregate- develop from several ovaries in one flower. ex- berries specifically strawberries, raspberries, and blackberries
Multiple- develop from a cluster of several flowers. ex- pineapple

Unique Composition of Fruit

Monosaccharide and disaccharide content
Fructose (170)- fruit sugar=sweetest
Glucose (70)= sweet
Sucrose (100)=sweeter
Shared with vegetables, to a degree-organic acids,phenolic compounds
pectic substances
Calories all the same
Found in varying amounts in fruits/veggies
Bananas (fresh) have a high level of fructose; if its not ripe yet fructose levels are low

Composition of Fruit

Primarily carbs- digestible/indigestible,
Trace protein
Trace fat- except coconut (35%) and avocado (17%)
waste- waste can be as high as 40% due to peeling losses

Aromatic Compounds found in Fruit

Aromatic= creates the odor contributing to the flavor
Responsible for flavor- esters, aldehydes, alcohols ( responsible for floral and fruit)

Changes which occur in fruits as it ripens

When fruits ripen they change color, soften (change of pectin)
Green color diminishes- carotnoid and flavone pigments develop
Flesh softens- changes in pectin substances
Acids Develop- volatile and nonvolatile acids develop to create unique flavor
Organic acids decrease- soumess decreases, Monosaccharides increase sweetness

Fruit Respiration

Fruit breathe ethylene gas
Harvested hard to become mature faster
Respiration occurs as the fruit grows, matures, and ripens
Ethylene gas (C2H4) is a ripening hormone produced by fruit cells during maturation
Fruits which are harvested prior to full ripe may be stored in an atmosphere which contains ethylene gas to promote ripening

Berries

Soft flesh which make them difficult to wash especially raspberries
Multiple numerous seeds
Characteristically external-strawberry
blueberry, tomato

Drupe

Soft fruit surrounding a single center pit
ex- plum, peach, cherry, olive
Every fruit with a pit is a drupe
Cling: flesh adheres to the stone (not loose)
Freestone: stone is loose (peach)
Endocarp (peach)- encasement of the pit; clearly visible (freestone) or not (cling)
Acai is also a drupe

Grapes

Cluster fruit- soft flesh, multiple seeds
All grapes have seeds
Grape producing vines have been hybrid to produce grapes with minuscule, tiny seeds
Grapes are fairly high in fructose so they are high in calories because of the fructose

Melon

Tough outer rind
Soft flesh surrounds multiple seeds in cavity. ex- watermelon, cantaloupe, honeydew
Very high in water
Vary in sugar content, some very sweet some not so sweet (calories vary)

Citrus

Unique because of sectioning, no other fruits are sectioned this way
Albeido: white pectin rich section material
Each section contains seeds
Surrounded by tough outer rind (peel)
ex- orange grapefruit lemon

Pome

Hard flesh surrounding central channel with multiple seeds. ex- apples pears
Call channel the core
Only 2 fruits that are pomes
7000 different varieties of apples
Apples 2nd most popular food purchase in the US
Endocarps can be more easily seen than drupes

Tropical or subtropical

Classed together due to area of production, rather than botany
Never store refrigerated. ex- banana, papaya, mango, pineapple
Grown in tropical climates

Like Vegetables

Pectin is an indigestible carb; produces gel
Other compounds frequently found in fruit are pectic substances, which are in three groups- Protopectin, Pectin (pectinic acids) and Pectic acids
Pectin is a general term describing this group of polysaccharides found in fruits.
It acts as a cementing substance between cell walls and is partially responsible for the plant?s firmness and structure.
Albedo: The white, inner rind of citrus fruits, which is rich in pectin and aromatic oils.

Organic Acids

Responsible for tart flavor
Found in cell sap- decrease as plant matures (fruit ripens), As organic acids decrease, mono and disaccharcides increase
common acids found in fruits
citric acid (citrus)
malic acid (apples, peaches, pears, strawberries)
tartaric acid (grapes)
oxalic acid (rhubarb)

Phenolic Compounds

Tannins-bitter taste, astringent mouthfeel, degrades with ripening
Found in apples, bananas, grapes, peaches, pears, and strawberries
Responsible for enzymatic oxidative browning, by activity of enzymes
Phenolase
Catecholase
tyrosinase

Essential Oils

Found in rind or peel
Source of concentrated flavor

Zest

graded peel of fruits

Salad

Key factors- cool, clean, crisp
Composed of Base?usually leafy
Body?what the salad is, the major ingredient
Tossed salad has body and base combined
Garnish?anything used that is not green, leafy
Dressing?adds and complements flavor
Part of the meal that adds contrast to the main course
All cooled/chilled not hot; should be bite sized

Purchase of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

USDA is responsible for voluntary producer quality grades for fresh fruit and veggies.
Producers are not required to grade/label fruits and veggies
Based upon physical appearance- shape,color, general appearance, ripeness, uniformity, freedom from defects
Buyer guide- always buy in season; guide to seasonality, look for firm blemish free, color

Grading Scale of Fruits from USDA

U.S. Fancy
U.S. No. 1
Grade A
Bananas are not graded since crop is imported

Fruit Buying Guide

Buy for intended use
Purchase by the pound
Store at 36-40o F.
Exception, tropical and subtropical which are stored at room temperature
Roots, tubers?cool, dry, constant temperature

Frozen fruits and vegetables

Freezing retains color, flavor
Blanched before freezing- immersed in boiling water for 1-2 minutes to inactivate enzymes
Texture is reduced- Freezing temps cause ice formation, break cell walls,thawing results in soft texture, thawed fruit is very soft

Frozen Vegetables

Popular, nutritious food choice, when fresh vegetables are out of season or harvest date was a long time prior to sale.

Canned Fruits and Vegetables

Cooked and sealed for preservation
Fruits- packed in sugar to preserve integrity of pieces ex- Brix
Juice packed (no added sugar)?fruit is ?fuzzy? (less than 10 o Brix)
Light syrup (10-14o Brix)
Heavy syrup (18-22o Brix)
Degrees Brix reflects the % of sugar in solutions of foods (ex. canned fruits or anything that contains sugar)

Hydroscopic

sugar draws moisture to food

Canned Vegetables

Thoroughly heated in water or 5% saline solution
Thoroughly cooked, cannot withstand second ?cooking? in kitchen
Texture, nutritional value, and palatability are reduced if heated to 212o F

Quality grades of canned fruits and vegetables

USDA voluntary grades?confusing
US fancy
US Grade A
US Extra Fancy

Trade grades
Libbeys
Green Giant
Dole

Store Brand

Could be rejected lot of canned or frozen product produced by Trade grade processor
Produced by copacker
Nutritional value is comparable to Trade grades
May not be equal to Trade grade in appearance
Piece size not uniform
Remnants of peel
Pieces of stone
its bad

Generic

No Frills
Quality not predictable
Quality varies from very good to poor

Biotechnology

Refers to genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, and genetic modification to develop new products
Been available since 1980's
1st food biomechanically produced was milk
BST or BOH***

Food Biotechnology

Began in 1970s
DNA was isolated from a bacterium and transferred to another bacterium
Called recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (rDNA)
Genes could be inserted into ?foreign? (not naturally present) host
Sought to improve existing species or create new ones

Examples of Biotechnology Applications

Improve availability by improving shelf life or resistance to pests
Increased nutrient content of food
Increased carotene in rice, canola oil
Increased monounsaturated fatty acid levels in oils
Increased lycopene in tomatoes
Gene controlled ripening
Bananas, tomatoes to allow for easier transportation
Foods with reduced naturally occurring toxins or allergens
Reduced fumonisin (mycotoxin) in corn
Grains and nuts with reduced allergens

Categories of Foods in biotechnoogy

rDNA technology produced foods
High lysine corn
Processed foods from those above
High lysine cornmeal
Single ingredient food additives which were produced using rDNA technology
Taco chips with cornmeal from above
Enzyme additives produced using rDNA technology
Nacho chips with cheese produced using an enzyme in cheese production

Plant Biotechnology

Objective of plant breeding
Improve characteristics of seeds so that the resulting plants are better protected against pests, achieve a better yield, or possess a greater nutritional value
Biotechnology allows for transfer of a greater variety of genetic information in a precise manner.

October, 2006

FDA is evaluating a proposal to allow cloned animals to be used as food
Beef
dairy
October, 2008?it?s happening, consumers cannot identify which products have been produced using biotechnology

Function of Protein in the Diet

Protein is required by every cell of the body for growth, maintenance, and repair of body tissues

Meat

Most expensive food consumed by Americans.
Requires knowledge of meat cuts and methods of preparation to determine what cut of meat to purchase

Organoleptic Quality of Meat

Depends on type and quality of meat purchased and preparation technique.

Structure of Meat

Mears are composed of a combination of- water, muscle, connective tissue, adipose (fatty) tissue

Meat Nutrients

Source of complete protein
Iron- heme iron
ZInc
B-complex vitamins
Fat soluble vitamins
Fat- saturated and cholesterol

exam 2

Nutritional Sciences 201 with Tangel at Rutgers University - New Brunswick/Piscataway

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