Exam 3 Review

What are the three classes of lipids?

fatty acids, complex lipids, and derived compounds

What are the complex lipids?

Triglycerides, phospholipids, glycolipid

What are derived compounds?

sterols and leukotrienes

All fatty acids have a ___ terminal end and a ___ terminal end

methyl, carboxy

What are saturated fatty acids?

fatty acids with no unsaturated (double) bonds

What are monounsaturated fatty acids?

fatty acids that have one double bond between carbons within their aliphatic chains

Polyunsaturated fatty acids have more than one carbon to carbon double bond within their aliphatic chains. True/False

True

What is hydrogenation?

the reduction of the carbon to carbon double bonds within the aliphatic chain of a fatty acid. (Addition of H)

Complete hydrogenation of an unsaturated fatty acid will result in a saturated fatty acid. True/False

True

How are vegetable oils converted to solid margarine?

Hydrogenation

Rancidity is best described by :

the unpleasant aromas in lipds due to oxidation of their unsaturated bonds or hydrolysis of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids

In oxidative rancidity, a hydroperoxide is formed in the ___ ____

allylic position

Glycols may form around the hydroperoxide causing the atty acids to break into smaller, foul smelling fragments. True/False

True

Antioxidants are often added to foods to keep ___ ___ from occuring

oxidative rancidity

In the cis configuration the groups appear on the ___ side of the double bond.

same

In the trans configuration the substituent groups are on the ___ side of the double bonds.

opposite

The different geometric configurations can change the physical properties of the fatty acids. True/False

True

The more ___ the fatty acid the lower the melting point of the lipid. (Oils)

unsaturated

The more ____ the fatty acid the higher the melting point of the lipid (Crisco)

Higher

Odd numbered fatty acids have ____ melting point

lower

Branched chain fatty acids have a ____ melting point

lower

Short chain fatty acids have a __ boiling point and are very volatile in the free acid form. Hence the term volatile fatty acid.

lower

Essential fatty acids are essential in humans and animals because they are needed for:

proper membrane synthesis and function, synthesis of lipid-like regulators of body function like the prostaglandins and leukotrienes

Essential fatty acid deficiency symptoms: Rat include:

scaly dry skin, decreased body wieght, heart enlargement, irregular estrus cycles/ reduced fertility and lactaction, increased blood triglycerides

___ is often referred to as an omega 3 fatty acid because its first double bond is 3 carbons from the methyl terminal end.

Linolenic

___ acid is often referred to as an omega 6 fatty acid because its first double bond is 6 carbons from the methyl end of the fatty acid.

linoleic

Linoleic acid is elongated and desaturated to form ____ acid

arachidonic

Arachidonic acid is a precursor to many pro-inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotrienes. True/False

True

Linolenic acid is elongated and desaturated to form _____ acid and _____ acid, both precursors to anti inflammatory prostaglandins and leukotriends

eicosapentaenoic, docosahexaenoic

EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA (docosahexaenoic acid) are long chain metabolites of ____ acid

linolenic

EPA and DHA are precursors of anti-inflammatory ___ and ___

prostaglandins, leukotrienes

What is arachidonic acid?

long chain metabolite of linoleic acid

Arachidonic acid is an essential fatty acid in some species like the ___

cat

Arachidonic acid is a precursor of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. True/False

True

Arachidonic acid is an essential fatty acid in dogs. True/False

False

The conversion of LNA to EPA is about ___ % in human males and ___% in human females

1,3

The converstion of EPA into DHA is almost ____ in humans

non-existent

What are some sources of essential fatty acids?

plant oils and nuts, fish oils, algae, mothers milk

Plant oils and nuts are higher in ____ compared to ____

linoleic, linolenic

Fish oils are marine oils that are an exclusive source of EPA and DHA. True/False

True

Algae is a so called single cell source of:

DHA

Mothers milk contains what essential fatty acid?

DHA

Phytoplankton synthesize ___ and ___

EPA, DHA

Small marine organisms, ____, like krill, consume phytoplankton and incorporate EPA and DHA

zooplankton

Smaller fish consume krill and larger fish feed on the smaller fish, thuse concentrating ______ synthesyzed by phytoplankton in their tissues

EPA/DHA

Olive oil has the most favorable mixture of _____ ___ ___ and ___ ____ and ___ ____ fatty acids

monounsaturated fatty acid, omega 6, omega 3

flax seed oil has the highest concentration of ____ acid of all oils

linolenic

Americans have a ___ deficiency of omega 3s

functional

At turn of the last century, ratio of omega 6 to omega 3 fatty acids was 6, it now exceeds ___

20

Consumption of fish or fish oil products is the only practical way of increasing the human intake of ____ acid and its long chain metabolites (EPA, DHA)

linolenic

Only a small amount of EPA are converted to DHA in humans causing not enough omega 3 Fatty acids. True/False

True

Omega 6 to omega 3 ratios in healthy human range from __:__:___ to __:___ consumed around the year 1900

2,5,1;6,1

Since 1850 omega 3 consumption has decreased to one sixth its traditional level, resulting in a ration of __:___

20,1

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a collective term for isomers, both geometric and positional, of ____ acid

octadecadienoic

The CLA receiving the most scrutiny in regards to health, rumenic acid, is the cis-9, trans-11 18:2 isomer. True/False

True

CLA is found in ruminants on pasture and is produced by the rumen microorganism ___ ___

butyrvibrio fibrisolvens

CLA can also be produces by the desaturation of ___ acid via chemical means

vaccenic

Some epidemiological data show that CLA prevents cancer by its antioxidant properties and its ability to alter growth signaling messages within cells, especially mammary. True/False

True

CLA is ___ meaning there are no methylene groups separating the double bond.

conjugated

Glycerol, a metabolite of glucose, forms the backbone of _____

triglycerides

Triglycerides are formed by the esterification of three fatty acids to a ___ molecule

glycerol

Phopholipid is a ___ lipid.

complex

What are the components of a phospholipid

glycerol backbone, two fatty acids, phosphate and other group such as choline or lecithin

The rate limiting step of cholesterol synthesis occurs at the:

3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase catalyzed step

Suppression of cholesterol synthesis can be accomplished by inhibiting the ____ enzyme

HMG-CoA

The inhibition of cholesterol synthesis can also inhibit synthesis of CoQ10. True/False

True

If you are taking a cholesterol lowering drug or "Statin" you may need to take a supplemental ____ ___ beacuse the statin blocks the synthesis of ubiquinone also known as CoQ10

coenzyme Q10

Data shows that micellized ____ is absorbed better than oil based or powder

CoQ10

It takes about ___mg of well absorbed CoQ10 to raise blood levels

100

____ is the basic precursor to all steroid hormones within the body

cholesterol

In calves, ___ begins hydrolyzing triglycerides with sort chain fatty acids.

lipase

The secretion of lipase in humans and calves makes an insignificant contribution to digestion. True/False

True

The reasons for lipase digestion in the mouth is a mystery to scientists and it is not believe to have any nutritional significance. True/False

True

In humans, lipase is secreted from the ___ of the stomach.

fundus

____ released from the pancreas as fat enters the small intestine. This causes the gall baldder to contract and release bile into the intestinal tract.

cholecystokinin

___ emulsifies dietary fats into micelles

bile

An ____ is a mixture of fat in water in which the fat is broken into very small droplets that are dispersed throughout the water.

emulsion

Fat emulsification occurs in a charged aqueous matrix in which the ____ ends of the emulsified lipids are oriented toward the aqueous matrix and the ____ ends are orientated toward the middle of the emulsion, away from the aqueous matrix.

charged, lipophilic

The __ ___ which have both a hydrophobic and hydrophilic end attach themselves to the fat globules forming an emulsion w/i the aqueous matrix of the intestinal tract.

bile salts

A ___ is composed of a bile salt and phospholipid layer wit the hydrophilic ends pointed outward toward the aqueous matrix in the lumen of the intestines and the hydrophobic end pointed inwards toward the oil or fat interior.

micelle

___ ____ is a common strategy seen in biology to keep high lipid components suspended in an aqueous matrix.

fat emulsification

The lipid core of a micelle is composed of _____, fatty acids, monoglycerides, cholesterol, fat soluble vitamins, and fat soluble drugs

triglycerides

The emulsification of the __ ___ in the intestinal tract allows the pancreatic lipases to easily attach and digest the lipids in the fat globule.

fat globule

___ is the enzyme secreted by the pancreas that hydrolyzes triglycerides into two fatty acids plus a monoglyceride

lipase

lipase requires the protein, ___, to stabilize lipase on the micelle surface

colipase

There are different kinds of phospholipases which are differentiated by the ___ bond they hydrolyze on the glycerol backbone or on which side of the phosphate group they cleave in phospholipid.

ester

The remnants of a phospholipase A2 hydrolysis of a phospholipid are a ____ and a ___ ____

lysophospholipid, fatty acid

Micelles actively enter the enterocyte. True/False

False (passively)

Many complex lipids are re-synthesized within the ____

enterocyte

Monoglycerides and fatty acids are converted to ____

chylomicrons

Some short chain fatty acids are transported through the enterocyte via _____ proteins

carrier

Chylomicrons pass out of cell and enter lyph system via ____ in mammals

lacteals

In chickens, chylomicrons are called _____ and pass directly into blood via the venules

portomicrons

Chylomicrons and portomicrons are transported to the various tissues. Remnants of ____ are recycled to the liver where their contents are repacked into lipoproteins of various sizes and redistributed throughout the body.

chylomicrons

The presence of lymph system in villi represents a _____ model

mammalian

_____ are formed within the golgi apparatus and then travel within vesicles until they exit the basolateral membranes of the cell via _____

chylomicrons, exocytosis

_____ is the process by which a product egresses from the cell when the secretory vesicle transporting it binds to the cell membrane, creating an opening to the outside of the cell.

Exocytosis

If not bound free fatty acids could exert undesirable and unexpected detergent effects within the enterocyte.

True

The ____ synthesizes a carrier protein to bind the fatty acid, it envelopes the fatty acid and prevents it from exerting a detergent effect whilst it is transported through the cell

enterocyte

___ in food and feed are typically esterified to a fatty acid.

Sterols

Sterols are absorbed after ___ ____ are hydrolyzed

fatty acids

Complex lipids are digested into ___ ___ within the intestinal tract and then reassembled within the intestinal walls.

constituent components

____ are necessary so that lipids can be transported in the aqueous-based environment of the blood.

lipoproteins

Lipoproteins, including chylomicrons, are structred in a very similar way to that of micelles, only they have no bile salt component but a shell of phospholipds which have embedded _____

apoproteins

The phospholipids have their ____ portions pointed outward to facilitate transport in the aqueous based blood.

hydrophilic

The _____ portions of the phospholipid are oriented in the direction of the core which is filled with cholesterol and triglycerides

hydrophobic

Lipoproteins are found in a variety of sizes within the blood. True/False

True

What are some classes of lipoproteins?

chylomicron, VLDL, IDL, LDL, HDL

What is an example of LDL?

bad cholesterol in humans

What is HDL?

good cholesterol

The smaller the lipoprotein, the protein content ____

increases

Triglyceride content ____ with lipoprotein size.

decreases

____ metabolism is complex and starts in the gastrointesinal tract and liver and ultimately involves ever tissue in the body.

lipoprotein

The decrease in size of lipoprotein is not always the result of a direct metabolism of larger ones to smaller. Many of the lipoproteins bind to different receptors and their contents reflect metabolic processes that are often independent of one another. True/False

True

_____ can occur in a variety of diseased states from simple viral diarrhea to gall bladder disease. It results in stools and droppins with a high fat content.

steatorrhea

Steatorrhea is characterized by ___ and highly odiferous stools and droppings. Stools with also float because of a decrease in specific gravity.

greasy

Abdominal extension and flatulence can also be present as a result of increased fermentation of the fats in the distal intestine, in steatorrhea. True/False

True

PYY is released into the blood and surrounding tissues and acts in both an ___ and____ fashion

endocrine, paracrine

___ causes a decrease in gastric emptying, decreased intestinal motility and pancreatic secretion and increases enterocyte absorption of nutrients.

PYY

The action of PYY is designed to correct and compensate for this malabsorption syndrome in Steatorrhea patients.

True

How are lipids synthesized in the body?

de novo

Most fatty acids are synthesized from ____ or ___ and ____

glucose, acetate, butyrate

Some complex lipids are synthesized from components of complex lipids that are digested and absorbed from the intestinal tract. True/False

True

___ and other complex lipids are synthesized in the enterocytes, liver, adipose and other body tissues

triglycerides

____, the vitamin, forms an integral part of the carrier protein portion of the molecule carbon is added in two carbon units as fatty acids are elongated during synthesis

pantothenic acid

___ ___ a three carbon molecule, is used to synthesize even numbered fatty acids because one CO2 is lost per addition

malonyl CoA

___ ___ is used for the synthesis of odd numbered fatty acids and methymalonyl CoA for odd numbered fatty acids.

Propionyl CoA

High levels of free fatty acids in the cytoplasm will cause this complex (Fatty Acid Synthetase) to dissociate by exerting a ___ ___ effect on the complex. This is a regulatory mechanism.

detergent like

Fatty acid synthesis in nonruminants is direct and uninterrupted. True/False

True

Fatty Acid Synthesis in ruminants, the direct flow is interrupted by a lack of ATP citrate lyase. True/False

True

Why can't ruminants make fatty acids from glucose?

low levels of the enzyme ATP citrate lyase, and low activity in the malate transhydrogenation cycle.

What is the major site of fatty acid synthesis in pigs, ruminants, rats, mice, rabbits, guinea pigs, dogs and cats?

adipose tissue

What is the major site of fatty acid synthesis in humans, chickens, rats, rabbits?

liver

What is the major site of fatty acid synthesis in lactating animals?

mammary gland

What are some of the functions of lipids in the body?

energy sources, structural components, protection of organs, thermal insulation, neural function

When are fatty acids mobilized from adipose tissue (Lipolysis)?

when energy demands exceeds the supply of glucose.

What happens during lipolysis?

hormone sensitive lipase is activated by hormones, such as epinephrine, begins degrading stored triglycerides and causes the release of glycerol and fatty acids into the blood.

What is lipolysis?

the degradation of triglycerides in adipocytes and the release of the breakdown products, fatty acids and glycerol into the blood stream.

What is the cascade of hormonal action in Lipolysis?

Hormonal activation of receptor. The formation of the second messeger, cyclic AMP from ATP by the enzyme adenyl cyclase. The activation of protein kinase by cAMP. The activation of hormone sensitive lipase by protein kinase.

Once fatty acids are mobilized from adipose tissue, they are carried, via blood carrier proteins to tissues that oxidize them for energy. True/False

True

The fatty acids are transported into the mitochondria via the ___ ___ __ __ and then oxidized via beta oxidation, the TCA cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.

acyl carnitine transport system

A ___ membrane is composed of two sections of complex lipids with their hydrophilic ends oriented toward either the extracellular or cytoplasmic matrix.

bilayered

The complex lipids always have ____ ends pointed toward queous matrix outside and inside the cell and the _____ end lines embeded within the bilayered membrane.

hydrophilic, hydrophobic

Transporters and receptors are ____ into the cell membrane

incerted

What is an adipocyte?

cell that stores fat as triglycerides

The ____ cell nucleus and the cell cytoplasm are pushed to the periphery of the cell by the lipid storage droplet, this

adipocyte

In adipocytes, all newly imported triglycerides form small lipid droplets on the periphery of the cells and then merge with the larger droplet. True/False

True

Adipose tissue is a very dynamic tissue with triglycerides constantly being synthesized and lipolysis constantly occuring. Together these processes are responsible for ___ ___

triglyceride turnover

Adipocytes are not only affected by regulatory hormones and peptides, but are also producers of hormones and peptides that affect other ___ ___

organ systems

Where are adipocytes found?

under the skin, depot sites around viscera, intra-abdominal fat, around organs, within tissues

Intra-abdominal fat is very ___ compared to other fat depots.

brittle

intra abdominal fat is mobilized ___ than any other fat depot

faster

Intra abdominal fat is very easily mobilized and is ___ __ risk factor

heart disease

Increased body fat deposition can drastically alter health risks for certain diseases and also call into question self esteem issues in men and women. True/False

True

Are there more variables in obesity other than calories or exercise?

yes

___ have fatty deposits, high in polyunsaturated fatty acids around their legs and hooves. The low melting point of these fatty acids help keep the limbs of the this animal supple in low temperatures.

moose

___ and ___ have heavy subcutaneous fat to provide insulation during long exposure to cool water.

seals, whales

The milk of __ ___ is very high in fat and hence energy. This prevents dispersion in water and offers superior nutrition to the young.

sea mammals

__ __ has been used for centuries by various cultures for both its oil and as a food/energy source

whale blubber

__ ___ have a very thick subcutaneous layer of fat to protect them from hypothermia both in and out of the water.

Arctic seals

__ _, do not have a thick subcutaneous fat for body insulation. Their body temperature is insulated by a thick fur coat and air bubbles trapped in that fur. They have a high rate of metabolism and feed constantly to maintain adequate energy expenditures.

sea otters

___ and ___ have heavy subcutaneous fat to provide insulation during long exposure to cool water.

seals, whales

The milk of __ ___ is very high in fat and hence energy. This prevents dispersion in water and offers superior nutrition to the young.

sea mammals

__ __ has been used for centuries by various cultures for both its oil and as a food/energy source

whale blubber

__ ___ have a very thick subcutaneous layer of fat to protect them from hypothermia both in and out of the water.

Arctic seals

__ _, do not have a thick subcutaneous fat for body insulation. Their body temperature is insulated by a thick fur coat and air bubbles trapped in that fur. They have a high rate of metabolism and feed constantly to maintain adequate energy expenditures.

sea otters

___ and ___ have heavy subcutaneous fat to provide insulation during long exposure to cool water.

seals, whales

The milk of __ ___ is very high in fat and hence energy. This prevents dispersion in water and offers superior nutrition to the young.

sea mammals

__ __ has been used for centuries by various cultures for both its oil and as a food/energy source

whale blubber

__ ___ have a very thick subcutaneous layer of fat to protect them from hypothermia both in and out of the water.

Arctic seals

__ _, do not have a thick subcutaneous fat for body insulation. Their body temperature is insulated by a thick fur coat and air bubbles trapped in that fur. They have a high rate of metabolism and feed constantly to maintain adequate energy expenditures.

sea otters

___ and ___ have heavy subcutaneous fat to provide insulation during long exposure to cool water.

seals, whales

The milk of __ ___ is very high in fat and hence energy. This prevents dispersion in water and offers superior nutrition to the young.

sea mammals

__ __ has been used for centuries by various cultures for both its oil and as a food/energy source

whale blubber

__ ___ have a very thick subcutaneous layer of fat to protect them from hypothermia both in and out of the water.

Arctic seals

__ _, do not have a thick subcutaneous fat for body insulation. Their body temperature is insulated by a thick fur coat and air bubbles trapped in that fur. They have a high rate of metabolism and feed constantly to maintain adequate energy expenditures.

sea otters

___ and ___ have heavy subcutaneous fat to provide insulation during long exposure to cool water.

seals, whales

The milk of __ ___ is very high in fat and hence energy. This prevents dispersion in water and offers superior nutrition to the young.

sea mammals

__ __ has been used for centuries by various cultures for both its oil and as a food/energy source

whale blubber

__ ___ have a very thick subcutaneous layer of fat to protect them from hypothermia both in and out of the water.

Arctic seals

__ _, do not have a thick subcutaneous fat for body insulation. Their body temperature is insulated by a thick fur coat and air bubbles trapped in that fur. They have a high rate of metabolism and feed constantly to maintain adequate energy expenditures.

sea otters

Seal milk is ___% fat as opposed to cows milk which is ___% fat.

45,4

Increased intakes of trans fatty acids are linked to increased incedence of both ___ disease and ____

cardiovascular, cancer

The mecanism that seems common in both cardiovascular diease and cancer seems to be increased ___

inflammation

___ are cytokines secreted by adipocytes that have profound regulatory effects on body metabolism.

adipokines

Before the discovery of adipokines, scientists used to think of adipose tissue as being composed of inert storage cells. True/False

True

The list of adipose tissue dereived hormones and regulatory substances continues to grow. True/False

True

What is leptin?

a protein hormone with important effects in regulating body weight, metabolism and reproductive functions.

Leptin is approximately __ kD in mass

16

Leptin is secreted by ___ and in lesser amounts by the _____ of the stomach and placenta

adipocytes, epithelium

Leptin receptors highly expressed in areas of ___ associated with regulation of body weight.

hypothalamus

Secretion of leptin from adipose tissue decreases ____

appetite

___ persons have high circulating levels of leptin with no decrease in appetite.

obese

High blood triglyceride levels ___ leptin secretion

decrease

leptin, a hormone secreted by adipose tissue, has a complex ___ structure

tertiary

How does leptin work?

decreases hunger and food consumption, increases energy expenditure, increases lipolysis in adipose tissue

Leptin likely acts as the hypothalamus via ___ __ (NPY) and ___ receptors

neuropeptide Y, melanin

Decrease in body fat % causes a ___ level of circulating leptin and increases food intake.

decreasing

What is a vitamin?

Orgainc compounds which are essential nutrients even though required in small quantities.

Most vitamins can be synthesized in the body and does not need to be obtained from the diet. True/False

False

Vitamins act as cofactors to enzymes in ___ ___

biochemical reactions

__ ___ vitamins are found in fats and oils and are insoluble in water.

Fat soluble

__ __ vitamins require bile for emulsification and micelles and lipoproteins for absorption and transport.

fat soluble

__ __ vitamins, except in birds, enter the blood via the lacteals with dietary lipids.

fat soluble

How do vitamins differ from other nutrients?

structure, function, concentration

Vitamins structures are:

individual units

What are vitamins functions?

Serve as enzymatic cofactors and they cause biochemical reactions to occur at a lower plane of energy

The concentration of vitamins in food and feedstuffs is ___ compared to other nutrients.

small

In humans, most vitamin and mineral deficiencies occur as multiple deficiencies in a setting of malnutrition. True/False

True

Most individual vitamin and mineral deficiencies occur in domestic animals fed diets that are formulated in ___ quantities.

large

The RDA sets ___ ___ ___ of nutrient intake for average, healthy individuals.

minimum dietary requirements

What are some factors contributing to vitamin and mineral requirements?

species, diet, age, physiological state, stress, medication, inborn errors of metabolism.

The vitamin or mineral concentration that achieves the best growth rate, feed utilization, and health and provides adequate body reserves is referred to:

optimum vitamin and mineral nutrition

Optimum vitamin and mineral nutrition can be very different from those levels of vitamin or mineral intakes that prevent frank deficiencies. True/False

True

Requirements of vitamin and mineral supplementation are highly individualized and affected by genotype, physiological state, diet and stress. True/False

True

There is little doubt that today's modern livestock, because they are bred for rapid growth, milk or egg production, need enhanced levels of vitamins and minerals as compared to their wild counterparts. True/False

True

___ ___ is an increasingly accepted concept in experimental and practical nutrition that nutrients, including viatmins and minerals, are better utilized within the body when consumed as a food source as opposed to a supplement.

Food synergy

The presence of one nutrient, especially minerals, may enhance or exert control over digestion and absorption of another nutrient thus affecting _____

bioavailability

There are other compounds within the food or feedstuff matrix that may enhance the action of the vitamin or nutrient. True/False

True

What are nutraceuticals?

food components that provide putative health benefits or reduce the risk of chronic disease.

___ are isolated from food or other plants and sold in pharmaceutical dosages and can be vitamins or minerals, herbal supplements, or other components of foods such as carotenoids, soy isoflavones, cellular components.

Nutraceuticals

For most individuals consuming typical well balanced diets that include ample quantities of vegetables, fruits, and animal products, there should be no need for supplemental vitamins. True/False

True

Many circumstances- lack of proper diet, older age, and physiological and emotional stress- may warrant vitamin supplementation. True/False

True

____ levels of vitamins, even well above those causing deficiency syndromes, are risk factors for chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease, cancer and osteoporosis.

suboptimal

Recent meta-analysis studies suggest that supplementation with large quantities of vitamins and minerals, in excess of the RDA, does not favorably impact ___ or ___ in humans

morbidity, mortality

In some cases, excess vitamin supplementation may actually ___ the incidence of certain diseases.

increase

It would appear that a more rational basis for vitamin supplementation in humans would be the use of vitamin/mineral supplements that supply the RDA. Supplementation beyond the RDA should take into consideration the need for specific vitamins and minerals based on dietary intake and physiological and psychological status of the individual. True/False

True

What does symmorphosis mean?

enough but not too much

Eating a varied diet with a wide selection of foods of plant and animal orgin takes what into consideration?

food synergy

Always follow the RDA's unless there is a scientific and medical consensus otherwise. True/False

True

If you take vitamin supplements, take only those providing the RDA of minerals and nutrients. Stay away from ____ until scientifically proven and recommended by physicians and nutritionists.

nutraceuticals

What was the first fat soluble vitamin identified?

Vitamin A

The fact that carotene could be transformed into vitamin A was discovered in

1929

What vitamin is active in the body as a class of compounds collectively referred to as retinoids?

Vitamin A

What are 3 types of retinoids?

retinol, retinal, retinoic acid

Retinol is the ___ form.

alcohol

Retinal is the ___ form

aldehyde

Retinoic acid is the ___ form

acid

Out of 500 carotenoids found in nature only __ can be used as precursors to A

50

Vitamin A is found in foods as a ___ ester, esterified to a fatty acid.

retinyl

Vitamin A and carotene are dispersed in micellar form prior to passive absorption from the intestinal lumen. These micelles are composed of mixtures of bile salts, monoglycertides, long chain fatty acids, together with the vitamins A, D, K, and E.

True

When Vitamin A is absorbed in the intestines it is de-esterified to retinol and re-esterified in the intestinal mucosa. The overall absorption of retinol from retinyl esters appears to be about ___%

75

Vitamin A is transferred from the enterocyte directly into the lymph via the lacteals in most mammals. In reptiles, birds and fish, vitamin A is absorbed directly into the ___.

blood

Most of the converstion of carotene to vitamine A occurs in the ___ ___

intestinal mucosa

The liver and adipose tissue are the main storage sites for vitamin A in humans and farm animals. About 15-20% is stored in adipose tissue. True/False

True

Cells can convert retinal to retinal ___. Conversion of retinal to retinoic acid is ____

reversibly, irreversible

Vitamin A is distributed throughout the body as retinol by ___ ___ ___ which is produced by the liver.

retinol binding protein

Retinol can be converted to other froms of vitamin A within specific tissues. True/False

True

What are some of Vitamin A's systemic functions?

reproduction, vision, cell differentiation and epithelial cell integrity, immunity, growth, antioxidant

___ binds to opsin and is converted to retinal-both components of pigment cells within the eye.

retinol

When photons hit retinal it changes from a cis to a trans isomer and is released from the opsin. This causes an __ ___ to be transmitted to the optic nerve.

electrical impulse

Different __ and __ cells within the eye control color and brightness of the image.

cone, rod

The rod and cone components of the eye are associated with ___ role in vision

retinals

There is a transformation from the boat form (cis) of retinal to the chair from (trans) of retinal.

True

Epithelial cell integrity includes:

all epithelial cells like skin, intestinal epithelia, ruminal epithelia, etc.

Vitamin A deficiency can result in variety of dermatologic diseases such as precancerous lesions and squamous and basal cell cancers. True/False

True

Examples of mucous membranes include ___ ____ and the lining of the outer portions of the female reproductive tract

oral cavity

Vitamin A deficiency in humans can cause:

night blindness, xerophthalmia, hyperkeratinization, and increases infections of respiratory and digestive tracts

What is xerophthalmia?

the drying of the conjunctiva- the cornea first becomes hard and then progresses to unusual softness

Xerophthalmia is the most common cause of ___ amongst young children in the world.

children

Keratomalacia causes a:

soft collapsed cornea

The requirements of Vitamin A deficiency in ruminants can be met by ___. Efficiency of conversion is 20-30%

carotene

What are some symptoms of vitamin A deficiency in ruminants?

reduced feed intake and growth, rough hair coat, lacrimation, night blindness, reproductive problems

Lacrimation, shown in cattle, causes ___ ___

dramatic tearing

The requirement of Vitamin A deficiency in poultry can be met by ____ conversion efficiency is almost 100%

carotene

What are some symptoms of vitamin A deficiency in poultry?

lower resistance to disease, eye lesions, muscular incoordination, hyperkeratinization of mucosal epithelium leading to infections

Vitamin A deficiency can cause sweeling and erosion around the eye's of goslings. True/False

True

Vitamin A deficiency in chickens cause:

hyperkeratinization and infection, poor feathering and skin lesions, visceral inflammation, inflammation and infection inside of beak and mouth

Vitamin A deficiency in rabbits cause hydrocephalic kits. True/False

True

Vitamin A deficiency in turtles can damage epithelial cells inside of eyelid resulting in secondary bacterial infections and ___ ___

swollen eyes

Too much chlorine in the water can cause the same conditions in turtles as vitamin A deficiency. True/False

True

Symptoms of vitamin a toxity begin when binding proteins are saturated and free vitamin A damages cells. True/False

True

What are some symptoms of vitamin A toxicity?

skeletal malformations, internal hemorrhaging, slow growth, reduced function of liver and kidney, birth defects.

Vitamin A toxicity in humans usually occurs in people ___ ____

consuming supplements

___ ___ canot cause toxicity because of feedback mechanisms that prevent its conversion to vitamin A in the intestinal mucosa when vitamin A levels are adequate.

Beta Carotene

Several recent studies have suggested that long term intake of excess levels of vitamin A is associated with increased ___ ___

bone demineralization

Chronic intake of excess levels of vitamin A may impair the ability of vitamin D to promote ___ absorption from the intestinal tract.

Ca

Vitamin D includes both the ___ or ___ forms

D2, D3

Vitamin D is both a __ and a ____

vitamin, hormone

Vitamin D has hormone like properties. True/False

True

Vitamin D can effect changes in the intestinal tract, bone and many other tissues via changes in its ___ ___

blood concentrations

1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol is the:

active form of vitamin D

___ is a steroid found in plants. Its exposure to UV light converts it to ergocalciferol.

ergosterol

Ergosterol's hydroxylation occurs in much the same manner as animal derived vitamin __

D3

In humans and many animals the hydroxylated form is equal to or has greater potency as D3. True/False

True

In chickens, pro-vitamin __ or ergosterol is not as potent as vitamin __

D2, D3

D2 does not bind efficiently to blood binding proteins and the dihydroxy form is excreted 33x faster than that of cholecalciferol. True/False

True

D3 is 30 times mroe potent than D2 in ____

poultry

D3 is preferred substrate in ___, ___, ___ and ____ (by a factor of 3)

pigs, cattle, horses, trout

Except for poultry and certain monkeys, although D3 is the preferred substrate, the presence of enough D2 can result in the formation of sufficient active vitamin D to meet the needs of most animals. True/False

True

What are some examples of tissue that can synthesize active vitamin D in small quantities?

skin, immune cells, mammary cells, colonic cells, prostate cells

Tissues that can synthesize active vitamin D allows the tissues to use the active form of D at the local level as regulator of cell proliferation, differentiation immune function and metabolism. True/False

True

Vitamin D targets organs which all respond by increasing the uptake of __

Ca

The __ and ___ increase uptake of Vitamin D to increase blood Ca whilst bones increase uptake of Ca for bone synthesis.

intestines, kidneys

Which vitamin can enhance immune cell function?

Vitamin D

A drease in blood ionized Ca increases ___ hormone secretion

parathyroid

Parathyroid hormone stimulates both ___ and ___ to either increase bone mineralization or mobilization.

osteoblasts, osteoclasts

In poultry the term international chick unit is used to reference the use of ___ vs ___

D3,D2

One international unit or USP unit of Vitamin D = ___ micrograms of Vitamin D3

0.025

Vitamin D deficiency is defined as a 25(OH) D concentration < ___ng/ml.

20

Vitamin D sufficiency as a 25(OH) D > __ ng/ml, and insufficiency as __ - __ ng/ml

20, 21-29

It is estimated that __ ___ people worldwide are either vitamin D insufficient or deficient.

one billion

What variables can affect vitamin D status?

sunscreen, medications and supplements, malabsorption, cancer, infections, depression

What are two types of calcium homeostasis dysfunction?

rickets, osteomalacia

What occurs in ricket patientS?

bones in children fail to calcify normally causing growth retardation and skeletal abnormalities. Weight will bow legs.

What happens in osteomalacia patients?

softening of bones in women with low Ca-intake, low exposure to sunlight and multiple pregnancies and lactations. Become bow-legged and stooped before age 30

Impaired immune function may help prevent:

prostate, colon, mammarry and skin cancer, and autoimmune disorders such as multiple schlerosis

Exposing hands, face and arms to sun for __ to ___ minutes, 3-4 times a week will provide the minimal essential amounts of D synthesis for adults. __ hours a week for darker skinned persons is required because of the pigments in their skin.

10-15, 3

The use of a sunblock with an SPF of 15 will decrease 99% of UVB from penetrating the skin, resulting in 99% decrease in vitamin D synthesis. True/False

True

Rats, common poultry, dogs, cats have a nutritional requirement for vitamin D even when sufficient sunlight is available, since vitamin D3 is not produced in the skin through the action of UV radiation on 7-dehydrocholesterol in sufficient quantitites to prevent rickets.True/False

True

Vitamin D should be supplied to animals that are denied sunlight over the winter months or during confinement. __ ___ __ is a good source.

sun cured hay

Symptoms of vitamin D deficiency in ruminants include:

rickets in young, tetany and convulsions, bones fracture easily, digestive disturbances

Rickets occurs in all animals, especially younger and is caused by:

lack of calcium, phosphorus, vitamin D

Symptoms of rickets in ruminants include:

enlarged joints, bowed legs, pain

Vitamin D deficiency in poultry includes:

severe weakness in legs, beaks and claws become soft, skeletal distortions, poor plumage and ruffled feathers.

Along with vitamin __, vitamin d is the most likely vitamin to be deficient in poultry diets

B12

Vitamin D intoxication is not rare. True/False

False

For most species the presumed maximum safe level of D3 for long term feeding conditions is __ - ___ times the recognized dietary requirements.

4-10

Vitamin E is associated with ___

tocopherol

Vitamin E was the ___ vitamin discovered when researchers followed deficiency in laboratory rats produced fetal death in pregnant females.

5th

Vitamin E is composed of what two compounds?

tocopherols and tocotrienols

Both tocopherols and tocotrienols consist of an aromatic ring structure with a ___ group attached and a long ___ tail

hydroxyl, lipophilic

What form of tocopherols is the most active in terms of anitoxidant activity?

alpha

What form of tocopherols is the lease active?

delta

Tocotrienols are as active as tocopherols. True/False

False

It is assumed that __ __ was the choice for diet or feed supplement for vitamin E.

alpha tocopherol

It is known that ___ tocopherol can fit into spaces within the cell that the alpha form cannot and thuse serves a vital role in the cell. It is likely that the same principal holds true for all forms of vitaminE

gamma

The antioxidant properties of vitamin E include:

activity localized in membranes, protects polyunsaturated fatty acids, protects lungs fromo zane and other pollutants, and enhances immune function

Vitamin E works with the mineral ___ to minimuze free radical damgage to tissues

Se

What is a free radical?

a highly reactive molecule that is usually very oxidized and carries a charge.

A free radical has atoms that are held together by ___ bonds

covalent

Radicals possess an electrical charge and will combine as a unit with other ions to form electrovalent compounds. True/False

True

How do antioxidants work?

They contribute electrons to free radicals causing them to be more reduced and less likely to enter into damaging chemical bonds within cell membranes and components

How are free radicals produced within the body?

production by alterations of radiation, smoke and air pollution on compounds in the body, inflammatory processes, mitochondrial function associated with aging and diseased states.

Antioxidant protective action includes what three steps?

a chemically reactive oxygen free radical attacks cholesterol molecules, this initiates a chain reaction, injury to cell membranes and DNA tissues

Vitamin E, in cellular and subcellular membranes, is the first line of defence against ___ ___ ___ to phospholipids.

free radical damage

Even with adequate E some free radicals occur. True/ False

True

__, as a part of the enzyme, glutathione peroxidase, is a second line of defense against free radical damage.

Se

Vitamin E deficiency is rare and usually is associated with fat malabsorption, :

cystic fibrosis, premature infancy, surgical trauma, symptoms, hemolysis of red blood cells, neuromuscular dysfunction, cystic breast disease, thrombophlebitis

Vitamin E deficiency in ruminants causes:

white muscle disease in sheep

White muscle disease is caused by :

deficiency of Se but exacerbated by inadequate vitamin E intake

What are some of the symptoms of white muscle disease?

weakness, stiffness and deterioration of muscles, including cardiac

Vitamin E deficiency in poultry causes:

exudative diathesis and encephalomalacia "crazy chick"

Exudative diathesis results in:

edema of breast muscle, blackening of affected parts, oozing of interstitial fluids from parts of the body denuded of feathers and skin

Encephalomalacia sypmtoms include:

hemorrhages within the cerebellum, dependent on the amound of linoleic acid in diet and only occurs in chicks within 2-6 weeks of age

Yellow fat or pansteatitis is a vitamin E deficiency in ___

cats

Yellow fat or pansteatitis is found when high levels of unsaturated fats are fed with low vitamin E intake, like with a ___ based diet.

tuna

Symptoms of pansteatitis are

anorexia, pyrexia, tenderness and lumpy fat in abdomen

Vitamin E toxicity in humans can cause excessive bleeding and even promote artery disease via inflammatory processes. True/False

True

Some reports of Vitamin E toxicity- increased blood pressure at high levels in person taking anti-hypertensive medications such as the ___

beta-blockers

Two naturally occuring major forms of Vitamin K include:

phylloquinone (K1), menaquinon (K2)

The synthetic form of vitamin K is ___

menadione (K3)

Sources of vitamin K include:

green leafy vegetables, bacteria that normally colonize the large intestine synthesize menaquinones

Recent research indicates that the contribution of bacterial synthesis is much less than previously thought (vitamin k). True/False

true

The only known biological role of vitamin K is that of the required coenzyme for vitamin K dependent carboxylase that ___ the ___ of the amino acid, glutamic acid, resulting in its conversion to gamma carboxyglutamic acid.

catalyzes, carboxylation

Although vitamin K dependent- gamma-carboxylation occurs only on specific glutamic acid residues in a small number of proteins, it is critical to the calcium binding function of those proteins. True/False

True

Where is the vitamin k reaction important?

formation of coagulation proteins, anticoagulation proteins, and peptides involved in cell growth.

The major role of vitamin K is:

blood clotting

There are ___ different proteins and the mineral, calcium involved in the blood clotting cascade. Vitamin being 4 of these proteins.

13

The similarities of structures between vitamin K and E could be why at high levels, vitamin E can cause excessive bleeding. It may be interfering with ___ ___

blood clotting

Vitamin K deficiency in humans can occur during :

fat malabsorption, antibiotic therapy, especially sulfa drugs

Symptoms of Vitamin K deficiency in humans include:

hemorrhaging

Vitamin K deficiency in ruminants causes:

hemorrhagic sweet clover disease

Hemorrhagic sweet clover disease investigaters found that consumption of mouldy sweet clover containing the vitamin K antagonist, ___ caused the condition.

discoumarol

What is warfarin?

a rodent poison that works by causing internal bleeding.

How does warfarin work?

it blocks the conversion of K epoxide to K quinone in the synthesis of prothrobin

Vitamin K deficiency in pigs and poultry can be cause by:

feeding of sulfa drugs and other antibiotics, and wire cages that prevent coprophagy will induce deficiency

Symptoms of Vitamin K deficiency in pigs and poultry include

hemorrhagic diseases

Phylloquinone and menaquinone are very toxic at high dosage levels. True/False

False

Menadione is toxic at high dosages and causes :

anemia, acute renal failure, stiffness, colic and laminitis in horses

Exam 3 Review

Animal Sciences 415 with Croom, Jim at North Carolina State University

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