Exam One
Biological Sciences 2200 with Mc Steen/braun at University of Missouri- Columbia
About this deck
By: claire manse
Created: 2011-09-07
Size: 106 flashcards
Views: 21
Created: 2011-09-07
Size: 106 flashcards
Views: 21
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Heredity
the passing on of physical or mental characteristics genetically from one generation to another
Traits
Characteristics of an individual
Genotype
the genetic constitution of an organism
Phenotype
observable trait or set of traits (structural and functional) of an organism produced by the interaction between its genotype and the environment
Self-Fertilization (selfing)
reproduction within the same organism (that has male and female parts)
Pure breeding (true breeding)
trait under investigation remains unchanged from parent to offspring for many generations
Parental Generation (P)
parental generation (maternal and paternal)
First FIlial Generation (F1)
the progeny of the parental generation mating
Second Filial Generation (F2)
The subsequent generation produced by breeding together the F1 offspring
Monohybrid Cross
crosses between true-breeding strains with alternative forms of a SINGLE trait
Reciprocal Cross
when parental types are reversed (smooth female x wrinkled male and wrinkled female x smooth male
Factors
carry hereditary information (now called genes)
allele
one of two or more alternative forms of a single gene that can exist at the same locus in the genome
Dominant
masks the recessive allele
Recessive
the factor or allele that is masked
Homozygous
contains two copies of the same specific allele of a particular gene
Heterozygous
two different alleles of a particular gene
Punnett square
all possible fusions of gametes shown in this chart
Locus
the specific location of a gene on a chromosome
Gene
the determinant of a characteristic of an organism
Mendel's First Law
the principle of segregation, segregation of alleles at ONE gene
Alleles of a gene segregate (separate) from each other in the formation of gametes. Half of the gametes carry one allele and the other half carry the other allele.
Variant
alteration in the normal sequence of a gene
Mendel's Second Law
law of INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT, independent assortment of alleles between TWO genes
Testcross
a cross of an individual expressing the dominant phenotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine its genotype
Wild Type
the functional allele of a gene that predominates (is present in the highest frequency) in the population of an organism in the "wild". wild type alleles typically encode a product for a particular biological function
Dihybrid Cross
heterozygous for two pairs of alleles at two different loci are called dihybrid, when there is a cross between two of these of the same type
Co-dominance
heterozygote expresses phenotype of both homozygote
one is not dominant to another (AB blood type is co-dominant) heterozygous expresses the phenotype of both dominant
Incomplete (partial) Dominance
heterozygote phenotype is intermediate of the two homozygotes
observed in many human disease alleles
Antigen
molecules that are recognized as foreign by the host. Host makes an antibody to get it out of the system
Complementation test
used to determine the number of genes affecting a trait. requires ALL are recessive mutations with the same phenotype
progeny
offspring of a parental cross
complete dominance
F1 phenotypes are identical to one of the parents
Penetrance
percentage of individuals with a given genotype that show a particular trait
Expressivity
variable pattern of phenotypic expression (neurofibromatosis, cleft palate, coat color in rabbits)
Recessive Lethal
homozygotes die as embryos
Dominance
describes relationships between genotype and phenotype for pairs of alleles of a gene
IA IA/ IA i (genotypes)
blood group A
expresses antibody B
Has A antigen (only accepts A or O)
IB IB/ IB i (genotypes)
blood group B
expresses antibody A
has B antigen (only accepts B or O)
IA IB (genotypes)
blood group AB universal accepter
expresses NO antibodies
has A and B antigen (accepts both A and B or O)
i i (genotypes)
blood group O universal donor
expresses antibody A and B
has no antigens, accepts only O
Antibodies
produced by human immune system to attack foreign things
ABO blood groups
A and B are co-dominant = express both A and B antigens
A is dominant to O = AO expresses A antigens
B is dominant to O = BO expresses B antigens
Independent assortment
alleles form one gene can segregate or assort independently of alleles at other genes
Epistasis
"to stand on" the expression of one allele prevents or interferes with or masks the expression of alleles at another locus
Chromosome
"colored bodies"; cells composed of DNA and protein, first seen in 1888
Diploid
many eukaryotes have two copies of each type of chromosome in their nuclei. This is said to be their chromosome compliment or 2N
produced by the fusion of two haploid gametes (one from mom one from dad)
Zygote
the sexual fusion of two haploid gametes (one from mom one from dad) produces this, which then undergoes embryological development
Haploid
each gamete has only one set of chromosomes and is said to be this (N)
Eukaryotes
genetic material buried in nuclear membrane
N = haploid number of chromosomes
(humans have 23)
Somatic cell
non-sex cell, body cell
Diploid = 2N
ONE homolog from each parent
(humans have 46)
Karyotype
Literally means "nucleus type" complete set of all the METAPHASE chromosomes in a cell; chromosome compliment
Homologous Chromosomes
(in diploid organisms) members of a chromosome pair that contain the same genes and that pair during MEIOSIS
Non-homologous chromosomes
chromosomes that contain different genes and that do NOT pair during meiosis
Homolog
each member of a chromosomal pair. One homolog is inherited form each parent
Autosomes
chromosomes other than sex chromosomes
Sex chromosomes
the chromosomes that are represented differently in the two sexes
a chromosome that differs morphologically between the two sexes
centromere
construction along the length of the chromosome
important for behavior of chromosome during cellular division
Mitosis
cellular reproduction in a cyclical process of growth
maintaing 2N; start with 2N end with 2N
MITOSIS results in 2 daughter cells (2N)
Cell cycle
the cycle of growth, mitosis, and cell division is called this
Interphase
Before Mitosis: DNA replication
After Mitosis: each cell has 1 sister chromatid from each homolog (2N chromosomes)
Gap 1 (G1)
metabolically active stage following cell division
Synthesis (S)
DNA synthesis
Gap 2 (G2)
preparation for cell division
Sister chromatids
DNA of each chromosome is replicates in the S phase, giving two exact copies attached to the same centromere
Chromatid
one of the two distinct longitudinal subunits of all replicated chromosomes
becomes visible between early prophase and metaphase of mitosis
Daughter chromosomes
when centromeres separate the sister chromatids become known as this
Prophase
Early prophase: chromatin associates or condenses into chromosomes (gradually become shorter and fatter) and centriole pairs begin to move apart
Late prophase: mitotic spindle forms outside of the nucleus, nuclear envelope breaks down near end of prophase
Metaphase
nuclear membrane disappears
chromosomes attach to mitotic spindle
chromosomes align along equator
Anaphase
centromeres divide
sister chromatids separate and move in opposite directions
construction of cell membrane begins
Telophase
new nuclear membrane forms to enclose 2 daughter cells
chromosomes de-condense into chromatin
Cytokinesis
cell divides into two complimenting chromosomes
Meiosis
creation of gametes, reduction of genetic material (2N --> N)
only in germ cells of sexually reproducing organisms
2 sets of divisions = meiosis I, meiosis II
MEIOSIS results in 4 haploid cells (N)
Prophase I
pairing of homologous chromosomes
tetrad formation (4 sister chromatids line up)- chiasmata form between homologs
Crossing over
crossing over
exchange of genetic material among homologous chromosomes (parent chromosomes)
*key difference between mitosis and meiosis
Metaphase I
tetrad moves to equator
N pairs (pairs line up, not individuals) of chromosomes at equator
Anaphase I
homologs split and sisters stay together and move toward poles
reduction division
in Mitosis, sister chromatids split in anaphase
*centromeres stay together in meiosis
Gamete receives one chromosome from each homologous pair
probability 1/2 paternal 1/2 maternal for each chromosome - this explains segregation
Reduction division
N chromosomes in each cell
Telophase I
new nuclear membrane forms to enclose 2 daughter cells
chromosomes de-condense into chromatin
(same as telophase in mitosis)
Meiosis II
no DNA replication before meiosis II. goes straight into prophase II
Prophase II
chromosomes condense, but no synapse or recombination
Metaphase II
nuclear membrane disappears
chromosomes attach to spindle
chromosomes align along equator
(similar to mitosis)
Anaphase II
disjunction
eventual result 4 cells each with N chromosomes
non-disjunciton - gamete has abnormal chromosome #
aneuploid - cell with abnormal # of chromosomes
Disjuction
moving of chromosomes
Successful Meiosis
at the end of successful meiosis, each of 4 daughter cells has a centromere form one parent for each chromosome (2 of 4 paternal alleles, 2 of 4 maternal alleles)
Synapsis
the formation along the length of the chromatids of a zipper like structure called the synaptonemal complex
Bivalent or Tetrad
a pair of homologous synapsed chromosomes, consisting of 4 chromatids, during the first meiotic division
recombination
crossing over can give rise to this
independent events
outcome of events not affected by outcomes of other events
Mutually exclusive events
if event A and event B cannot both occur then the probability that either will occur is the sum of their separate probabilities
at least
1 - (probability of not happening)
chi- squared test
a measure of distance between observed and expected values
degrees of freedom
number of classes - 1 = df
critical value
probability of a chi-squared value this large or larger under the null hypothesis
pedigree analysis
deducing sex-linkage and dominance
X chromosome
directly related to the sex of the organism
has a lot of genes
males are hemizygous (XY)
females (XX)
Y chromosome
sex chromosome only in males
hemizygous
condition of the X gene in males is said to be this because it is present only once
sex linked
females receive one maternal and one paternal X chromosome
males receive one maternal X and a paternal Y
X-linked recessive
more common in males (1/2 sons of carriers)
skips generations (if start with affected males)
X-linked dominant
criss-cross inheritance
males only pass trait to their daughters (ALL of them)
1/2 of affected females offspring are affected (if heterozygous)
Autosomal recessive
tends to skip generations
roughly equal number of males and females affected
often found in mating between related individuals
Autosomal dominant
does not skip generations (going backwards form affected offspring)
roughly equal numbers of males and females affected
Null hypothesis
a hypothesis that states that there is no real difference between the observed data and the expected data
Mitosis
the process of nuclear division in haploid of diploid cells producing daughter nuclei that contain identical chromosome complements
Gamete
mature reproductive cell that is specialized for sexual fusion
About this deck
By: claire manse
Created: 2011-09-07
Size: 106 flashcards
Views: 21
Created: 2011-09-07
Size: 106 flashcards
Views: 21
About StudyBlue
STUDYBLUE makes things that make you better at school.
Things like online flashcards with photos and audio.
Things like personalized quizzes and friendly reminders about when (and what) to study next.
Think of it as a digital backpack™: access to all of your study materials online and on your phone.
STUDYBLUE exists to make studying efficient and effective for every student, for free. Join us.
“Simply amazing. The flash cards are smooth, there are many different types of studying tools, and there is a great search engine. I praise you on the awesomeness.”
Dennis
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