final exam

Henry Bessemer

Develops steel with the Bessemer process for the manufacture of steel.
T he Bessemer process involved using oxygen in air blown through molten pig iron to burn off the impurities and thus create steel
Occurred during the permanent phase of the industrial revolution, during the 2 nd phase

Louis Pasteur

Remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and preventions of disease. His discoveries reduced mortality from puerperal fever , and he created the first...
Regarded as the father of germ theory and bacteriology
Pasteurization for milk, work with livestock inoculators, rabies cure, synthetically produced vaccines, and vaccines against diseases-measles

Charles Darwin

Showed that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestors , and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection . He published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species .

Georges Cuvier

Was instrumental in establishing the fields of comparative anatomy and paleontology through his work in comparing living animals with fossils. He is well known for establishing extinction as a fact, being the most influential proponent of catastrophism in geology in the early 19th century, and opposing the gradualistic evolutionary theories of Lamarck and Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire . His most famous work is the Le R�gne Animal (1817; English The Animal Kingdom ).

Charles Lyell

He is best known as the author of Principles of Geology , which popularized uniformitarianism ? the idea that the earth was shaped by slow-moving forces still in operation today. Lyell was a close and influential friend of Charles Darwin .

Gregor Mendel

Father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of certain traits in pea plants. Mendel showed that the inheritance of these traits follows particular laws , which were later named after him. The significance of Mendel's work was not recognized until the turn of the 20th century. The independent rediscovery of these laws formed the foundation of the modern science of genetics.

Positivism

It is an epistemological perspective and philosophy of science which holds that the only authentic knowledge is that which is based on sense experience and positive verification.

Informal Empire

describes the spheres of influence which an empire may develop that translate into a degree of influence over a region or country, which is not a...
The term is most commonly associated with the British Empire , where it is used to describe the extensive reach of British interests into regions and...
Among the most notable elements of the British informal empire was China, which played an important, if unwilling, role in British imperial trade, and...

Quinine

is a natural white crystalline alkaloid having antipyretic (fever-reducing), antimalarial , analgesic (painkilling), and anti-inflammatory properties and a bitter taste.
The form of quinine most effective in treating malaria was found by Charles Marie de La Condamine in 1737. Quinine was isolated and named in 1820 by French researchers Pierre Joseph Pelletier and Joseph Bienaim� Caventou . The...

Berlin Conference

It regulated European colonization and trade in Africa during the New Imperialism period, and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial power. Called for by Portugal and organized by Otto von Bismarck , the first Chancellor of Germany , its outcome, the General Act of the Berlin Conference , is often seen as the formalization of the Scramble for Africa . The conference ushered in a period of heightened colonial... (character limit exceeded)

1889 World?s Fair

The main symbol of the Fair was the Eiffel Tower , which was completed in 1889, and served as the entrance arch to the Fair. The tower was constructed of puddled iron, a form of purified wrought iron and was designed by Gustave Eiffel . The 1889 fair was built on the Champ de Mars in Paris, which had been the site of the earlier Paris Universal Exhibition of 1867 , and would be the site of the 1900 exposition as well.

The White Man?s Burden

Its a poem by the English poet Rudyard Kipling . It was originally published in the popular magazine McClure's in 1899, with the subtitle The United States and the Philippine Islands . [1] Although Kipling's poem mixed exhortation to empire with sober warnings of the costs involved, imperialists within the United States understood the phrase "white man's burden" as a characterization for imperialism that justified the policy as a noble enterprise

London Missionary Society

Was a non-denominational missionary society formed in England in 1795 by evangelical Anglicans and Nonconformists , largely Congregationalist in outlook, with missions in the islands of the South Pacific and Africa .

James Keir Hardie

He was a Scottish socialist and labor leader, and was the first Independent Labor Member of Parliament elected to the Parliament of the United Kingdom . Hardie is regarded as one of the primary founders of the Independent Labor Party
Keir Hardie steered the Labour movement away from what he regarded as the damaging influence of Marxism , and towards a moderate, low church and trade unionist version of socialism that was practical, flexible and helped create a...

Paris Commune

It was a government that briefly ruled Paris from March 18 to May 28, 1871. It existed before the split between anarchists and Marxists had taken place, and it is hailed by both groups as the first assumption of power by the working...
In a formal sense, the Paris Commune was simply the local authority, the city council which exercised power in Paris for two months in the spring of 1871. However, the conditions in which it was formed, its controversial decrees, and its...

P�troleuse

They were female supporters of the Paris Commune , accused of burning down much of Paris during the last days of the Commune in May 1871. During May, when Paris was being recaptured by loyalist Versailles troops, rumors circulated that lower-class women were committing arson against private property and public buildings, using bottles full of petroleum or paraffin (similar to modern-day Molotov cocktails ) which they threw into cellar... (character limit exceeded)

Dreyfus Affair

It was a political scandal that divided France in the 1890s and the early 1900s. It involved the conviction for treason in November 1894 of Captain Alfred Dreyfus , a young French artillery officer of Alsatian Jewish descent . Sentenced to life imprisonment for allegedly having communicated French military secrets to the German Embassy in Paris, Dreyfus was sent to the penal colony at Devil's Island in French Guiana and placed in solitary confinement .

Theodor Herzl

He was an Austro-Hungarian journalist and the father of modern political Zionism
It is an international nationalist political movement that, in its broadest sense, calls for the existence of a sovereign, Jewish national homeland. Since the establishment of the State of Israel , the Zionist movement continues primarily to support and advocate on behalf of the Jewish state .

Emmeline Pankhurst

She was an English political activist and leader of the British suffragette movement, which helped women win the right to vote .

Marie Curie

She was a physicist and chemist She was a pioneer in the field of radioactivity and the first person honored with two Nobel Prizes ? in physics and chemistry. She was also the first woman professor at the University of Paris .
Her achievements include the creation of a theory of radioactivity , techniques for isolating radioactive isotopes , and the discovery of two new elements, polonium and radium . Under her direction, the world's first studies were...

Maria Montessori

She was an Italian physician, educator , philosopher , humanitarian and devout Catholic ; she is best known for her philosophy and the Montessori method of education of children from birth to adolescence. Her educational method is in use today in a number of public as well as private schools throughout the world.

Neo-Malthusians

It was originally used to mean population limitation by birth control and/or abortion. Currently it may be used as a label for those who are concerned that overpopulation may increase resource depletion or environmental degradation...
It originates from the ideas of Thomas Robert Malthus . The Malthusian theory suggests a relationship between the growth of population and food. Thomas Malthus argued that population growth is geometric (1?2?4?8), and agricultural...

Pronatalism

or simply natalism is an ideology promoting child-bearing and glorifying parenthood, which may include limiting access to abortion and contraception, as well as creating financial and social incentives for the population to reproduce

Eugenics

Its the study and practice of selective breeding applied to humans, with the aim of improving the species. In a historical and broader sense, eugenics can also be a study of "improving human genetic qualities."
Eugenics was widely popular in the early decades of the 20th century, but has largely fallen into disrepute after having become associated with Nazi Germany . Since the postwar period, both the public and the scientific communities...

Robert Baden-Powell

He was a lieutenant-general in the British Army , writer, and founder of the Scout Movement .

Entente Cordiale

It is a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom and the French Republic . Beyond the immediate concerns of colonial expansion addressed by the agreement, the signing of the Entente cordiale marked the end of almost a millennium of intermittent conflict between the two nations and their predecessor states, and the start of a peaceful co-existence that has continued to date. The Entente cordiale, along with the... (character limit exceeded)

Moroccan Crises

It was the international crisis over the international status of Morocco between March 1905 and May 1906.

Race to Fashoda

It was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa . It brought the United Kingdom and France to the verge of war , but ended in a diplomatic victory for the UK. It is held to have given rise to the ' Fashoda syndrome ' in French foreign policy (assertion of French influence in areas which may be becoming susceptible to British influence).

International Anarchy

It is a concept in international relations theory holding that the world system is leaderless: there is no universal sovereign or worldwide government . There is thus no hierarchically superior, coercive power that can resolve disputes, enforce law, or order the system like there is in domestic politics.

Archduke Francis Ferdinand

He was an Archduke of Austria His assassination in Sarajevo precipitated Austria-Hungary's declaration of war against Serbia . This caused Germany and Austria-Hungary, and countries allied with Serbia (the Triple Entente Powers ) to declare war on each other, starting World War I .

Schlieffen Plan

It was the German General Staff 's early 20th century overall strategic plan for victory in a possible future war where it might find itself fighting on two fronts France to the west and Russia to the east. The First World War later became such a war with both a Western Front and an Eastern Front . The plan took advantage of expected differences in the three countries' speed in preparing for war. In short, it was the German plan to... (character limit exceeded)

Battle of the Marne

It was a WWI battle fought between 5 and 12 September 1914. It resulted in an Allied victory against the German Army The battle effectively ended the month-long German offensive that opened the war and had reached the outskirts of Paris. The counter-attack of six French field armies and one British army along the Marne River forced the German Imperial Army to abandon its push on Paris and retreat north-east, setting the stage for four... (character limit exceeded)

Total War

It is a war of unlimited scope in which a belligerent engages in a mobilization of all available resources at their disposal, whether human, industrial, agricultural, military, natural, technological, or otherwise, in order to entirely destroy or render beyond use their rival's capacity to continue resistance. The practice of total war has been in use for centuries, but it was only in the middle to late 19th century that total war was... (character limit exceeded)

Tirailleurs S�n�galais

It was a corps of Tirailleurs in the French Army recruited from Senegal , French West Africa and throughout west, central and east Africa, the main province of the French colonial empire
Despite the unit's overall recruitment not being limited to Senegal, the unit took on the adjective "s�n�galais" since that was where the first Tirailleur regiment had been formed. That first unit was formed in 1857 and served France...

The Fourteen Points

It was a speech delivered by United States President Woodrow Wilson to a joint session of Congress on January 8, 1918. The address was intended to assure the country that the Great War was being fought for a moral cause and for postwar peace in Europe . People in Europe generally welcomed Wilson's intervention , but his Allied colleagues were skeptical of the applicability of his idealism

Duma

Any of various representative assemblies in modern Russia and Russian history. The State Duma in the Russian Empire and Russian Federation corresponds to the lower house of the parliament . Simply it is a form of Russian governmental institution that was formed during the reign of the last Czar, Nicholas II. as well as for city councils in Imperial Russia (' Municipal dumas '), and city and regional legislative bodies in the Russian Federation.

Bolsheviks

They were a faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split apart from the Menshevik faction at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The Bolsheviks were the majority faction in a crucial vote,...
The Bolsheviks, founded by Vladimir Lenin , were an organization of professional revolutionaries under a democratic internal hierarchy governed by the principle of democratic centralism , who considered themselves as the vanguard...

Mensheviks

They were a faction of the Russian revolutionary movement that emerged in 1903 after a dispute between Vladimir Lenin and Julius Martov , both members of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party . The dispute originated at the Second Congress of that party, ostensibly over minor issues of party organization. Martov's supporters, who were in the minority in a crucial vote on the question of party membership, came to be called... (character limit exceeded)

Vladimir Lenin

He was a Russian revolutionary and communist politician who led the October Revolution of 1917 . As leader of the Bolsheviks , he headed the Soviet state during its initial years (1917?1924), as it fought to establish control of Russia in the Russian Civil War and worked to create a socialist economic system. As a politician, Vladimir Lenin was a persuasive orator , as a political scientist his extensive theoretic and philosophical... (character limit exceeded)

Leon Trotsky

He was a Bolshevik revolutionary and Marxist theorist. He was one of the leaders of the Russian October Revolution , second only to Vladimir Lenin . During the early days of the Soviet Union, the founder and commander of the...
After leading a failed struggle of the Left Opposition against the policies and rise of Joseph Stalin in the 1920s and the increasing role of bureaucracy in the Soviet Union, Trotsky was expelled from the Communist Party and...

New Economic Policy

It was an economic policy proposed by Vladimir Lenin to prevent the Russian economy from collapsing. Allowing some private ventures, the NEP allowed small businesses or shops, for instance, to reopen for private profit while the state continued to control banks, foreign trade, and large industries.

Paris Peace Conference

Was the meeting of the Allied victors following the end of World War I to set the peace terms for Germany and other defeated nations, and to deal with the empires of the defeated powers following the Armistice of 1918. It took place in Paris in 1919 and involved diplomats from more than 30 countries. They met, discussed and came up with a series of treaties (Peace of Paris Treaties) that reshaped the map of Europe and the world, and imposed guilt... (character limit exceeded)

Treaty of Versailles

It was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I . It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers . It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz...
Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required Germany to accept sole responsibility for causing the war and to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions and pay reparations to...

Otto Dix

He was a German painter and printmaker. Noted for his ruthless and harshly realistic depictions of Weimar society and of the brutality of war, he, along with George Grosz , is widely considered one of the most important artists of the Neue Sachlichkeit .

Weimar Republic

Its the name given by historians to the parliamentary republic established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government, named after Weimar , Following World War I , the republic emerged from the German Revolution...
In its 14 years the Weimar Republic was faced with numerous problems, including hyperinflation , political extremists and their paramilitaries, and hostility from the victors of the First World War. However, it overcame many...

Beer Hall Putsch

It was a failed attempt at revolution that occurred between the evening of 8 November and the early afternoon of 9 November 1923, when Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler , Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff , and other heads of the Kampfbund unsuccessfully tried to seize power in Munich , Bavaria , and Germany . Putsch is the German word for a military coup d'�tat .

Dawes Committee

It was an attempt following World War I for the Triple Entente to collect war reparations debt from Germany . When after five years the plan proved to be unsuccessful, the Young Plan was adopted in 1929 to replace it.

Benito Mussolini

He was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism . began...
Mussolini was among the founders of Italian Fascism . In the years following his creation of the fascist ideology, Mussolini influenced, or achieved...
Mussolini became one of the main figures of the Axis powers and, on 10 June 1940, Mussolini led Italy into World War II on the side of Axis. Three...

Fascism

It is a radical and authoritarian nationalist political ideology . Fascists seek to organize a nation on corporatist perspectives, values, and systems such as the political system and the economy.
Fascists believe that a nation is an organic community that requires strong leadership, singular collective identity, and the will and ability to commit violence and wage war in order to keep the nation strong. They claim that culture...

Acerbo Law

It was an Italian electoral law proposed by Baron Giacomo Acerbo and passed by the Italian Parliament in 1923. The purpose of it was to give Mussolini's fascist party a majority of deputies.

Joseph Stalin

Stalin launched a command economy , replacing the New Economic Policy of the 1920s with Five-Year Plans...
During the late 1930s, Stalin launched the Great Purge (also known as the "Great Terror"), a campaign to purge...
In 1939, after failed attempts to establish a collective security system in Europe, Stalin decided to enter into a...
Stalin fostered a cult of personality around him, but after his death, his successor, Nikita Khrushchev ,...

Five Year Plans

They were a series of nation-wide centralized exercises in rapid economic development in the Soviet Union . The plans were developed by a state planning committee based on the Theory of Productive Forces that was part of the general guidelines of the Communist Party for economic development. Fulfilling the plan became the watchword of Soviet bureaucracy . In addition, several capitalist states have emulated the concept of central... (character limit exceeded)

the Night of Broken Glass

was an anti-Jewish pogrom in Nazi Germany and Austria on 9 to 10 November 1938.

Liquidation of the Kulaks

Stalin requested severe measures to put an end to the kulak resistance. In a speech given at a Marxist agrarian conference, he stated that, "From a policy of limiting the exploitative tendencies of the kulaks, we have gone over to a policy of liquidating the kulaks as a class." The party agreed to the use of force in the collectivization and dekulakization efforts. The kulaks were to be liquidated as a class and subject to one of three fates: death... (character limit exceeded)

Enabling Act

It was passed by Germany 's Reichstag and signed by President Paul von Hindenburg on March 23, 1933. It was the second major step, after the Reichstag Fire Decree , through which Chancellor Adolf Hitler legally obtained plenary powers and established his dictatorship. It received its name from its legal status as an enabling act granting the Cabinet the authority to enact laws without the participation of the Reichstag for four years.

Reichstag Fire

Itwas an arson attack on the Reichstag building in Berlin on 27 February 1933. The event is seen as pivotal in the establishment of Nazi Germany .
Berlin fire station received an alarm call that the Reichstag building, the assembly location of the German Parliament , was ablaze. The fire started in...
The fire was used as evidence by the Nazis that the Communists were beginning a plot against the German government. Adolf Hitler , who had been sworn...

Joseph Goebbels

He was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda in...
4 Project
Anschluss
Also known as was the 1938 annexation of Austria into Greater...
With power quickly transferred over to Germany, Wehrmacht...
The Anschluss was among the first major steps in Adolf Hitler...
Austria ceased to exist as a fully-independent nation until late...

4 Project

It was a program, also called Euthanasia Program , in Nazi Germany spanning October 1939 until August 1941, during which physicians killed 70,273 people specified in Hitler's secret memo of September 1, 1939 as suffering patients "judged incurably sick, by critical medical examination", but described in a denunciation of the program by Cardinal Galen as long-term inmates of mental asylums "who may appear incurable"

Also known as was the 1938 annexation of Austria into Greater Germany by the Nazi regime . Austria was annexed to the German Third Reich on 12 March 1938. There had been several years of pressure from Germany and there were many supporters within Austria for the " Heim ins Reich "

movement, both Nazis and non-Nazis. Earlier, Nazi Germany had provided support for the Austrian National Socialist Party (Austrian Nazi Party) in its bid to seize power from Austria's Austrofascist leadership.

Spanish Civil War

It was a major conflict that devastated Spain from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939. It began after an attempted coup d'�tat by a group of Spanish Army generals against the government of the Second Spanish Republic , The nationalist coup was supported by the conservative Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right monarchists known as Carlist groups, and the Fascist Falange Following the military coup, working-class revolutions spread across... (character limit exceeded)

Lebensraum

It was a belief in Germany in the early 20th century that Germany needed new land to expand in, especially toward the east. It became a major motivation for Nazi Germany 's territorial aggression after 1937. Lebensraum was a reinterpretation of the by then century-old concept of Drang nach Osten . In his book Mein Kampf , Adolf Hitler detailed his belief that the German people needed Lebensraum ?and that it should be taken in the East.

Neville Chamberlain

He was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from May 1937 to May 1940. Chamberlain is best known for his appeasement foreign policy, and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Nazi Germany. When Adolf Hitler continued his aggression, Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, and Chamberlain led Britain... (character limit exceeded)

Winston Churchill

He was a British politician known chiefly for his leadership of the United Kingdom during World War II . He served as Prime Minister from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955 . A noted statesman and orator, Churchill was also an officer in the British Army , a historian , writer and artist. To date, he is the only British Prime Minister to have received the Nobel Prize in Literature , and the second person to be recognized as... (character limit exceeded)

Appeasement

It was the policy of European democracies in the 1930s that aimed to avoid war with the dictatorships of Germany and Italy. It has been described as "...the policy of settling international quarrels by admitting and satisfying grievances through rational negotiation and compromise, thereby avoiding the resort to an armed conflict which would be expensive, bloody, and possibly dangerous." It arose from the desire to avoid another war like the First World War .

Maginot Line

Named after French Minister of Defense Andr� Maginot , was a line of concrete fortifications , tank obstacles, artillery casemates , machine gun posts, and other defenses, which France constructed along its borders with Germany and...
The French established the fortification to provide time for their army to mobilize in the event of attack and/or to entice Germany to attack neutral Belgium to avoid a direct assault on the line. The success of static, defensive...

Vichy France

Common term used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944. This government succeeded the Third Republic and preceded the Provisional Government of the French Republic . The government officially called itself the French State , in contrast with the previous designation, "French Republic." Marshal Philippe P�tain proclaimed the government following the military defeat of France by Nazi Germany during World War... (character limit exceeded)

Lend-Lease Act

It was the name of the program under which the United States of America supplied the United Kingdom , the Soviet Union , China , France and other Allied nations with vast amounts of war material between 1941 and 1945 in return for, in the case of Britain, military bases in Newfoundland , Bermuda , and the British West Indies . It began in March 1941, over 18 months after the outbreak of the war in September 1939. It was called An... (character limit exceeded)

boat on 21 May, 1941 outside of the war zone.

Yalta Conference

S ometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference , was the February 4?11, 1945 wartime meeting of the heads of government of the United States , the United Kingdom , and the Soviet Union ? President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Prime Minister Winston Churchill , and General Secretary Joseph Stalin , respectively?for the purpose of discussing Europe's postwar reorganization. Mainly, it was intended to... (character limit exceeded)

Nuremberg Laws

They were a series of military tribunals , held by the main victorious Allied forces of World War II , most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany . The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg , Bavaria , Germany , in 1945-46, at the Palace of Justice . The first and best known of these trials was the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the... (character limit exceeded)

Kristallnacht

Or the Night of Broken Glass was an anti-Jewish pogrom in Nazi Germany and Austria on 9 to 10 November 1938. The Kristallnacht was triggered by the assassination in Paris of German diplomat Ernst vom Rath by Herschel Grynszpan...
While the assassination of Rath served as a pretext for the attacks, the Kristallnacht was part of a broader Nazi policy of antisemitism and persecution of the Jews. Kristallnacht was followed by further economic and political...

Balfour Declaration

was a formal statement of policy by the British government stating that
"His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing...

Charles de Gaulle

He was a French general and statesman who led the Free French Forces during World War II . He later founded the French Fifth Republic in 1958 and...
He gradually obtained control of all French colonies - most of which had at first been controlled by the pro-German Vichy regime - and by the time of the...
He remains the most influential leader in modern French history.

Truman Doctrine

It is the common name for the Cold War strategy of containment versus the Soviet Union and the expansion of communism . The Truman Doctrine was the first in a series of containment moves by the United States, followed by economic restoration of Western Europe through the Marshall Plan and military containment by the creation of NATO in 1949. In Truman's words, it became "the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are... (character limit exceeded)

Marshall Plan

officially the European Recovery Program , ERP ) was the primary program, of the United States for rebuilding and creating a stronger economic foundation for the countries of Western Europe. The initiative was named for Secretary of State George Marshall and was largely the creation of State Department . The reconstruction plan, developed at a meeting of the participating European states, was established on June 5, 1947. It offered the same... (character limit exceeded)

Cominform

It is the common name for what was officially referred to as the Information Bureau of the Communist and Workers' Parties Cominform was a Soviet

dominated organization of Communist parties founded in September, 1947 at a conference of Communist party leaders in Poland . Soviet leader Joseph Stalin called the conference in response to divergences among eastern European governments on whether or not to attend the Paris Conference on Marshall Aid in July 1947.The initial seat of Cominform was located in Belgrade . After the expulsion of Yugoslavia from the group in June 1948, the seat... (character limit exceeded)

Berlin Blockade

It was one of the first major international crises of the Cold War and the first such crisis that resulted in casualties. During the multinational occupation of post- World War II Germany , the Soviet Union blocked the Western Allies' railway and road access to the sectors of Berlin under their control. Their aim was to force the western powers to allow the Soviet zone to start supplying Berlin with food and fuel, thereby giving the... (character limit exceeded)

NATO

Also called "the (North) Atlantic Alliance", is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The NATO headquarters are in Brussels , Belgium , [3] and the...
After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the organization became drawn into the Balkans while building better links with former potential enemies to the east, which culminated with several former Warsaw Pact states joining the...

Warsaw Pact

It is the informal name for the mutual defense Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance commonly known as the Warsaw Pact subscribed by eight communist states in Eastern Europe , which was established at the USSR ?s initiative and realized on 14 May 1955, in Warsaw , Poland. In the Communist Bloc, the Communist (East) European economic community. The Warsaw Treaty was the Soviet Bloc ?s military response to West... (character limit exceeded)

European Economic Community

Also referred to as simply the European Community , was an international organization that existed between 1958 and 1993 which was created to bring about economic integration including a single market between Belgium , France , Germany , Italy , Luxembourg and the Netherlands It was enlarged later to include six additional states and, from 1967

Nikita Khrushchev

He led the Soviet Union during the Cold War . He served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as Chairman of the Council of Ministers , or Premier, from 1958 to 1964. Khrushchev was responsible for the partial de-Stalinization of the Soviet Union, for backing the progress of the early Soviet space program , and for several relatively liberal reforms in areas of domestic policy.... (character limit exceeded)

The ?Thaw?

It refers to the period from the mid 1950s to the early 1960s , when repression and censorship in the Soviet Union were partially reversed and millions of Soviet political prisoners were released from Gulag labor camps , due to...
Khrushchev's Thaw allowed some freedom of information in the media, arts and culture; international festival, foreign movies, uncensored books, and new forms of entertainment on the emerging national TV, ranging from massive parades and...

Imre Nagy

He was a Hungarian politician, appointed Prime Minister of Hungary on two occasions. Nagy's second term ended when his non- Soviet-backed government was brought down by Soviet invasion in the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1956 , resulting in Nagy's execution on charges of treason two years later

Berlin Wall

It was a concrete barrier built by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany ) that completely enclosed the city of West Berlin , separating...
The separate and much longer Inner German border (the IGB) demarcated the border between East and West Germany . Both borders came to symbolize the...
In 1989, there were a radical series of Eastern Bloc political changes associated with the liberalization of the Bloc's authoritarian systems. After...

Mahatma Ghandi

He was the pre-eminent political and spiritual leader of India during the Indian independence movement . He was the pioneer of satyagraha ?resistance to tyranny through mass civil disobedience , which led India to independence and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom across the world. Gandhi is commonly known around the world as Mahatma Gandhi or "Great Soul. He is officially honored in India as the Father of the Nation ; his... (character limit exceeded)

Suez Canal

It is an artificial sea-level waterway in Egypt , connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Red Sea . Opened in November 1869, it allows water transportation between Europe and Asia without navigating around Africa . The northern terminus is Port Said and the southern terminus is Port Tawfik at the city of Suez . The canal is 192 km (119 mi) It is single-lane with passing places in Ballah By-Pass and in the Great Bitter Lake . It... (character limit exceeded)

Gamal Abdel Nasser

Nasser is seen as one of the most important political figures in both modern Arab history and Third World politics in the 20th century he nationalized the Suez Canal from its British and French stockholders two years later. The...
he concentrated on pursuing increased socialist and modernizing measures in Egypt, which included the nationalization of more companies, providing housing and universal health care, and other liberalization schemes. His commanding...

Ho Chi Minh

He was a Vietnamese Communist revolutionary and statesman who was prime minister (1946?1955) and president (1945?1969) of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam). H led the Viet Minh independence movement from 1941 onward, establishing the communist-governed Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 and defeating the French Union in 1954 at Dien Bien Phu . He lost political power inside North Vietnam in the late 1950s, but... (character limit exceeded)

Kwame Nkrumah

As a leader of this government, Nkrumah faced three serious challenges: first, to learn to govern; second, to unify the nation of Ghana from the four territories of the Gold Coast; third, to win his nation?s complete independence from...
The Gold Coast had been among the wealthiest and most socially advanced areas in Africa, with schools, railways, hospitals, social security and an advanced economy. Under Nkrumah?s leadership, Ghana adopted some socialistic policies and...

Land Freedom Army

The Mau Mau Uprising of 1952 to 1960 was an insurgency by Kenyans against British colonial rule. The core of the resistance was formed by members of the Kikuyu ethnic group , along with smaller numbers of Embu and Meru . The uprising failed militarily, though it hastened Kenyan independence and motivated Africans in other countries to fight against colonial rule. It created a rift between the white colonial community in Kenya and the Home... (character limit exceeded)

Algerian Revolution

It was a conflict between France and Algerian independence movements from 1954 to 1962, which led to Algeria gaining its independence from France. An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare , maquis fighting, terrorism against civilians, use of torture on both sides and counter-terrorism operations by the French Army . Effectively started by members of the National Liberation Front (FLN) on... (character limit exceeded)

Henri Alleg

He is a French-Algerian journalist, director of the " Alger r�publicain " newspaper, and a member of the French Communist Party . After Editions de Minuit , a French publishing house, released his memoir La Question in 1958, Alleg gained international recognition for his stance against torture , specifically within the context of the Algerian War

Pieds Noir

It is a term used to refer to colonists of French Algeria until the Algerian independence in 1962. Specifically, Pieds-Noirs were French nationals, including those of European descent, Sephardic Jews and settlers from other...
The Pieds-Noirs are known in reference to the Algerian War , which saw the deaths of 24,000 French nationals and at least 153,000 Algerians, with estimates varying due to differing statistical analyses. The Algerian War was fought by...

Betty Friedan

A leading figure in the "Second Wave" of the U.S. Women's Movement , her 1963 book The Feminine Mystique is sometimes credited with sparking the "second wave" of feminism. Friedan co-founded National Organization for Women in...
In 1970, after stepping down as NOW's first president in 1969, Friedan organized the nation-wide Women's Strike for Equality on August 26, the 50th anniversary of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution granting...

Simone de Beauvoir

She was a French feminist. She wrote novels, monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues, essays, biographies, and an autobiography in several volumes. She is now best known for her metaphysical novels, including She Came to Stay and The Mandarins , and for her 1949 treatise The Second Sex , a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism .

Equal Pay Act

It is a United States federal law amending the Fair Labor Standards Act , aimed at abolishing wage disparity based on sex In passing the bill , Congress denounces sex discrimination for the following reasons :It depresses wages and living standards for employees necessary for their health and efficiency ;it prevents the maximum utilization of the available labor resources it tends to cause labor disputes, thereby burdening, affecting, and... (character limit exceeded)

Nanterre

On March 26, 2002, Richard Durn, a disgruntled local activist, shot and killed eight town councilors and 14 others were wounded in what the French press dubbed the Nanterre massacre . On March 28, the murderer killed himself by jumping from the 4th floor of the hotel in Paris, while he was questioned by two policemen about the reason for his killing in the Nanterre City Hall.

Alexander Dubek

He was a Slovak politician and briefly leader of Czechoslovakia , famous for his attempt to reform the Communist regime (Prague Spring). Later, after the overthrow of the authoritarian government in 1989, he was Chairman of the federal Czecho-Slovak parliament .

Prague Spring

It was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during the era of its domination by the Soviet Union after World War II The Prague Spring reforms were an attempt by Dubek to grant additional rights to the citizens in an...
The reforms, especially the decentralization of administrative authority, were not received well by the Soviets who, after failed negotiations, sent thousands of Warsaw Pact troops and tanks to occupy the country. A large wave of...

Leonid Brezhnev

He was the fourth General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , serving from 1964 until his death in 1982. His eighteen year term as General Secretary was one of the lengthiest, second only to that of Joseph Stalin . Brezhnev's rule saw the global influence of the Soviet Union's grow dramatically, in part because of the expansion of the Soviet Army during this time. His tenure as leader has often been criticized, however, for... (character limit exceeded)

D�tente

It is the easing of strained relations, especially in a political situation. The term is often used in reference to the general easing of relations between the Soviet Union and the United States , a thawing at a period roughly in the middle of the Cold War .

SALT I

It is the common name for the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Agreement, also known as Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty. SALT I froze the number of strategic ballistic missile launchers at existing levels,
One clause of the treaty required both countries to limit the number of sites protected by an anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system to two each. Negotiations lasted from November 17, 1969 until May 1972 in a series of meetings beginning...

SALT II

It was a controversial experiment of negotiations between Jimmy Carter and Leonid Brezhnev from 1977 to 1979 between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, which sought to curtail the manufacture of strategic nuclear weapons . It was a continuation of the progress made during the SALT I talks. SALT II was the first nuclear arms treaty which assumed real reductions in strategic forces to 2,250 of all categories of delivery vehicles on both sides. SALT II... (character limit exceeded)

Ostpolitik

It is a term for the "Change Through Rapprochement " policy the efforts of Willy Brandt , Chancellor of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany), to normalise his country's relations with Eastern European nations (including the German Democratic Republic , or East Germany

Margaret Thatcher

She served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1979 to 1990 and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 to 1990. She is the only woman to have held either post.

Mikhail Gorbachev

He was the seventh and last General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , serving from 1985 until 1991, and the last head of state of the USSR , serving from 1988 until its collapse in 1991. He was the only...
In 1970, he was appointed the First Party Secretary of the Stavropol Kraikom, First Secretary to the Supreme Soviet in 1974, and appointed a member of the Politburo in 1979. After the deaths, within three years, of Soviet Leaders...

Perestroika

It is the Russian term for the political and economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev . Its literal meaning is "restructuring", referring to the restructuring of the Soviet political and economic system.
Perestroika is often argued to be one reason for the fall of communist political forces in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe , and for the end of the Cold War .

Glasnost

It was the policy of maximal publicity, openness, and transparency in the activities of all government institutions in the Soviet Union , together with...
The word was frequently used by Gorbachev to specify the policies he believed might help reduce the corruption at the top of the Communist Party and the...
Glasnost can also refer to the specific period in the history of the USSR during the 1980s when there was less censorship and greater freedom of information.

Lech Walesa

He is a Polish politician , trade-union organizer, and human-rights activist. And served as President of Poland 1990?95.
he became a trade-union activist. For this he was persecuted by the Polish communist government , placed under surveillance, fired in 1976, and arrested...
In 1990 he successfully ran for the newly re-established office of President of Poland . He presided over Poland's transformation from a communist to...

Solidarity

is a unity of purpose or togetherness

Nicolae Ceausescu

He was a Romanian politician who was the Secretary General of the Romanian Communist Party from 1965 to 1989, President of the Council of State from...
His rule was marked in the first decade by an open policy towards Western Europe and the United States , which deviated from that of the other...
Ceauescu's second decade was characterized by an increasingly erratic personality cult , nationalism and a deterioration in foreign relations with the...

Treaty of Maastricht

It was signed on 7 February 1992 by the members of the European Community in Maastricht it created the European Union and led to the creation of the single European currency, the euro . The Maastricht Treaty has been amended to a degree by later treaties.

Metric Martyrs

They are a British advocacy group based in the United Kingdom who campaign for the choice of how units of measurement are presented. The group states that it believes that vendors should have the freedom to mark up their goods...
The advocacy group was formed when several members were fined for offences, including not displaying metric signage as well as imperial, and for using illegal uncalebrated weighing machines. In Thoburn v Sunderland City Council , the...

Jean-Marie Le Pen

He is a French conservative and nationalist politician who is founder and president of the Front National (National Front) party. Le Pen has run for the French presidency five times, including in 2002 , when in a surprise upset he came second, polling more votes in the first round than the main left candidate. Le Pen lost in the second round to Jacques Chirac . Le Pen again ran in the 2007 French presidential election and finished fourth.... (character limit exceeded)

Mau Mau Uprising

of 1952 to 1960 was an insurgency by Kenyans against British colonial rule.

final exam

History 242 with Andersen at University of Tennessee - Knoxville

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