Final Exam
Zoology 101 with Steudel/thoma at University of Wisconsin - Madison
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Heritable change in a population across many generations
Evolution
Evolutionary changes are taking place all around us & it helps us understand the history and diversity of life
Why you should study evolution
Small scale: change in a single gene
Microevolution
Large scale: formation of new species
Macroevolution
Fast geological change due to major disturbance that causes changes
Catastrophism
Slow geological change due to gradual change over time due to natural processes
Uniformitarianism
According to Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck, what is the mechanism of evolution?
inheritance of acquired genes
1.) New and very different species and related fossils
2.) Gradients of changes in species within and among continents, islands
2.) Gradients of changes in species within and among continents, islands
Some of Darwin's observations
Species present today descended from ancestral species
descent with modification
The mechanism responsible for change in a species over time
natural selection
NATURAL SELECTION
Organisms have great capacity for reproduction but, population sizes remain relatively constant.
--> more individuals are produced than can survive and reproduce, thus there is ________________
Organisms have great capacity for reproduction but, population sizes remain relatively constant.
--> more individuals are produced than can survive and reproduce, thus there is ________________
struggle for existence
NATURAL SELECTION
No two individuals are the same
No two individuals are the same
variability within populations
NATURAL SELECTION
Most variation is ___________
Most variation is ___________
heritable
NATURAL SELECTION
Survival can be influenced by differences in ___________ traits (some traits are better than others)
Survival can be influenced by differences in ___________ traits (some traits are better than others)
heritable
NATURAL SELECTION
The increasing frequency of favored traits in a population is _____________ at work
The increasing frequency of favored traits in a population is _____________ at work
evolution by natural selection
NATURAL SELECTION
Individuals with traits that enhance survival & reproduction pass these traits onto their __________, and as a result, these traits become more _____ in the population over time.
Individuals with traits that enhance survival & reproduction pass these traits onto their __________, and as a result, these traits become more _____ in the population over time.
offspring; common
The ability of an organism to pass its genes to the next generation
fitness
Includes surviving, finding mates, producing offspring
fitness
-Artificial selection i.e., selected breeding
-Homology
--Vestigial structures (organs)
--homologous structures
--molecular biology
--embryology
-Analogous structures
-Biogeography
-Fossil record
-Homology
--Vestigial structures (organs)
--homologous structures
--molecular biology
--embryology
-Analogous structures
-Biogeography
-Fossil record
Evidence for natural selection
Selected breeding by controlling survival and reproduction, dramatic change can occur in a short period of time
artificial selection
Functionally different features with a similar construction due to common ancestry
homologous structures
Similarity due to common ancestry
homology
Anatomical features with no apparent function, but resembles structures of presumed ancestors
vestigial organs
Similar molecular compositions of proteins, DNA
molecular homologies
Greater similarity in DNA and proteins than unrelated species
related species
Indicate when a species diverged into two or more different species
branch points
Development resemblances (hint at common ancestry)
embryological homologies
We have similar genes to a wide variety of organisms
-______ genes= master genes involved in control of development
--found in vertebrates, fruit flies, nematodes
- ______ = embryonic development gene
--fruit fly mutants --> developmental abnormalities
--take human _____ --> put into mutant flies --> normal development
-______ genes= master genes involved in control of development
--found in vertebrates, fruit flies, nematodes
- ______ = embryonic development gene
--fruit fly mutants --> developmental abnormalities
--take human _____ --> put into mutant flies --> normal development
hox; dpp times 2
perform the same or similar function but evolved separately, result from convergent evolution
analogous structures
Evolution of similar structures in distantly related organisms that occupy similar environments
convergent evolution
Geographical distribution of species
biogeography
-Species on ocean islands tend to resemble species of nearest mainland, even if environment is different
-Species on ocean islands do not resemble species on islands with similar environments in other parts of the world
-Species on ocean islands do not resemble species on islands with similar environments in other parts of the world
More of Darwin's observations
Ordered array in which fossil appear in strata (layers)
fossil record
Points to keep in mind:
1.) natural selection only acts on existing variation (it does not grant organisms what they need)
2.) not all genetic variation makes an organism more fit
3.) not all genetic variation may be subject to natural selection (neutral variation)
4.) ___________ are the units of evolution
5.) evolution can fashion complex structures (do NOT assume only complex structures are useful)
6.) natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms
---historical constraints: each new structure is modified form existing material
---adaptations are often compromises
1.) natural selection only acts on existing variation (it does not grant organisms what they need)
2.) not all genetic variation makes an organism more fit
3.) not all genetic variation may be subject to natural selection (neutral variation)
4.) ___________ are the units of evolution
5.) evolution can fashion complex structures (do NOT assume only complex structures are useful)
6.) natural selection cannot fashion perfect organisms
---historical constraints: each new structure is modified form existing material
---adaptations are often compromises
populations
Variation in population + differential survival & reproduction
things you need for evolution to occur
Variation in __________ traits come from mutations (sex) and/or adaptations that specialize organisms for particular ecological niches
heritable
generation to generation change in allele frequencies in a population; changes in a gene pool (sum of all the alleles in a population
microevolution
What does evolutionary change require? And where do we see the changes?
changes in genotype; phenotype
A _________ evolves when individuals with different genotypes survive and reproduce at different rates
population
A change in ________ frequency mean that the population has evolved
gene
Genetic drift, gene flow, mutation, natural selection (any combination might be responsible for ____________ change)
mircroevolutionary
Effects of random chance on a population; can greatly reduce/eliminate alleles
genetic drift
Population size decreases --> lots of alleles lost
Population size later increases --> genetic diversity is low
Population size later increases --> genetic diversity is low
Bottleneck effect (genetic drift)
Individuals isolated from main population; loss of alleles, increase in frequency of rare alleles
Founder effect
Genetic exchange due to the migration of fertile individuals or gametes; reduces differences between populations, increases diversity WITHIN populations
gene flow
Heritable change in DNA; random; rare--> not big change in allele frequency in one generation; can be bad, but not always...
mutation
accumulates and maintains favorable genotypes in a population; must have genetic variation
natural selection
favors individuals at one extreme of a phenotypic distribution; individuals of one extreme experience poor reproductive success
directional selection
favor individuals with intermediate phenotypes; average is good and extremes are not--> reduction in variation
stabilizing
extreme phenotypes are favored
disruptive selection
maintains genetic diversity in a population; natural selection does not always cause the elimination of weak or less fit alleles
balancing selection
acts on traits that affect reproductive success --> creates mating behaviors
sexual selection
A group of individuals that have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring
biological species concept (how species are defined)
Extinct forms of life, asexual reproducers, self-fertile organisms, just because they don't interbreed-- does that mean they can't?
--isolated in nature, but breed when put together?
--breeding experiments often impractical
--ring species- where to mark the point of speciation?
--isolated in nature, but breed when put together?
--breeding experiments often impractical
--ring species- where to mark the point of speciation?
limitations of the biological species concept
How does a species stay a species?
Reproductive barriers
No zygote forms; no mating tempted (three types: temporal isolation, habitat isolation, behavioral isolation); mating tempted (mechanical isolation- morphological features prevent successful mating; gametic isolation- gametes do not unite)
Pre-zygotic mating barriers
Zygote does not develop into fertile adult; mating and fertilization occur (hybrid inviability- development impaired; hybrid sterility- cannot reproduce; hybrid breakdown- first generation hybrids fertile, second is feeble/sterile)
Post-zygotic mating barriers
The origin of new species into one or more descendant species
speciation
Speciation with geographic isolation
((Geographic separation --> no gene flow
Natural selection, genetic drift --> populations diverge))
((Geographic separation --> no gene flow
Natural selection, genetic drift --> populations diverge))
Allopatric speciation
Single ancestral species --> wide array of descendant species; type of allopatric speciation; happens a lot on islands
Adaptive radiation
Speciation without geographic isolation. Reproductive barrier evolves first! Most common mechanism is polyploidy.
Sympatric speciation
Gametes with extra chromosomes due to meiotic error
((Bottom line: change in number of chromosomes sets can instantly lad to new species))
((Bottom line: change in number of chromosomes sets can instantly lad to new species))
Polyploidy
One population speciates in concert with another
Cospeciation
Tempo of change is not constant
punctuated equilibrium
Evolution of Cats: A case of Macroevolution
-To determine relatedness of 37 existing cat species
--Molecular homology: compared sequences of thirty genes
-To determine when speciation occurred:
--fossil record
--molecular clock: based on extent of differences between different genes, can estimate how long ago species diverged from one another
low sea levels--> _________
sea levels rose --> genetic drift, natural selection, mutation --> _________
BUT, low sea levels again --> migration --> where speciation had occurred, so no _________
-To determine relatedness of 37 existing cat species
--Molecular homology: compared sequences of thirty genes
-To determine when speciation occurred:
--fossil record
--molecular clock: based on extent of differences between different genes, can estimate how long ago species diverged from one another
low sea levels--> _________
sea levels rose --> genetic drift, natural selection, mutation --> _________
BUT, low sea levels again --> migration --> where speciation had occurred, so no _________
migration, speciation, gene flow
Study of distribution and abundance of living organisms and the interactions between organisms and their environment (divisions: population biology, community, and ecosystems)
Ecology
Group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area (characteristics: density, dispersion, population structure, population rates)
population
Number of individuals per area
Density
Density of a species at a given location is usually determined by what two things?
Resources (food, water, nest sights, quality habitat) & limiting agents (disease, parasites, predators)
Patterns of spacing
Dispersion
Individuals aggregated in patches (most common); often results from uneven distribution of resources and mating or other social behavior); attraction
clumped dispersion
Individuals evenly spaced
uniform dispersion
No pattern seen
random dispersion
Makeup of individuals in the population
structure
# males : # females
--primary: at conception
--secondary: time of birth (106:100)
--tertiary: some later stage in life (1:2)
--primary: at conception
--secondary: time of birth (106:100)
--tertiary: some later stage in life (1:2)
sex ratio
Why is there a skewed tertiary sex ratio? (4 things)
Reproductive-related stress, dispersal, dominance status, and energy requirements
Percentage of individuals in different ages or age groups in a population; important tool in conservation biology
age structure
growth/decline
--birth: # of births/population
--death: # of deaths/population
--fecundity/fertility: # of offspring/time (limited by number of eggs)
--generation time: time period form birth of individuals to birth of their offspring (related to body size)
--birth: # of births/population
--death: # of deaths/population
--fecundity/fertility: # of offspring/time (limited by number of eggs)
--generation time: time period form birth of individuals to birth of their offspring (related to body size)
rates
Tracks changes in number of individuals in a cohort over time
survivorship
group of individuals born at the same time
cohort
Collection of traits related to growth, reproduction, parental investment, life span; or, collection of traits that allow and individual to get its genes into the next generation (adaptations)
life history
What are the two types of life histories?
R strategists and K strategists
-Live fast, die young and have lots of offspring
-small offspring
-no parental care
-III cohort survivorship
-age structure is a pyramid
-first reproduction very young
-can have rapid population growth (exponential)
-species in variable environments
-small offspring
-no parental care
-III cohort survivorship
-age structure is a pyramid
-first reproduction very young
-can have rapid population growth (exponential)
-species in variable environments
R strategy
-slow and steady wins the race
-larger offspring
-lots of parental care
-delayed reproduction
-I cohort survivorship
-live in competitive places/situations
-slower population growth (logistic)
-age structure is a column
-larger offspring
-lots of parental care
-delayed reproduction
-I cohort survivorship
-live in competitive places/situations
-slower population growth (logistic)
-age structure is a column
K strategy
How does population size change over time?
Start with a very small population and describe population growth over time
Rate of population growth under ideal conditions; J shaped curve
((G=rN)) larger the N the faster the population grows (r=B-D)
((G=rN)) larger the N the faster the population grows (r=B-D)
exponential growth
-High death rate
-low birth rate (individuals not fecund/fertile; sex ratio skewed toward males; generation time long)
-low birth rate (individuals not fecund/fertile; sex ratio skewed toward males; generation time long)
reasons for r being small
Controls on population size
population-limiting factors
Importance depends on population size (e.g., disease, competition for resources-- tasmanian devils)
density-dependent limiting factors
density not important (abiotic factors: floods, tornados, humidity, soil pH, etc.)
density-independent limiting factors
What happens to populations when limits set in?
population sizes can crash-- extinction, few survivors, particularly risky for populations living on islands
or population sizes can stabilize
or population sizes can stabilize
Idealized population growth that is slowed by population limiting factors as population size increases (growth with constraint)
-population growth rate will be small when population size is small or large
-population growth rate will be highest when population is at intermediate level relative to K
-At low population levels, if resources are abundant, the population is able to grow exponentially
-population growth rate will be small when population size is small or large
-population growth rate will be highest when population is at intermediate level relative to K
-At low population levels, if resources are abundant, the population is able to grow exponentially
logistic growth model
k= ? and K= ?
parental care in exponential growth; carrying capacity in logistical growth (density-dependent)
Both r and K- selected populations affected by both density-dependent and density-independent. Which strategists use which one?
dd= k strategists
di= r strategists
di= r strategists
The amount of land and water needed to produce all the resources we consume and absorb that waste we produce
ecological footprint
All populations of organisms living close enough together for potential interaction; boundaries are arbitrary & interspecific interactions
community
the active demand of 2+ species for a common vital resource
interspecific interactions
How do species interact i.e., what are the possible interspecific interactions? (3 things)
predation, symbiosis, and competition
Reciprocal evolutionary change in interacting species
coevolution
-Eating and not being eaten necessary for reproductive success
-Forms
--Carnivory (animal --> animal)
--Herbivory (animal --> plant)
--Parasitism (little organism --> much bigger organism)
-Forms
--Carnivory (animal --> animal)
--Herbivory (animal --> plant)
--Parasitism (little organism --> much bigger organism)
Predation (+/-)
1.) being able to escape
2.) be hard to eat
--chemical toxins, spines, thorns
3.) annoy your predator (chemical arsenal)
4.) be hard to see (cryptic coloration-- camouflage)
5.) be a faker (scare your predator or pretend to be bad to eat (batesian mimicry: a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful species))
6.) be a truth teller (be bad to eat/poisonous and let the predator know it- aposematic coloration; strength in numbers- two or more species resemble each other)
7.) let someone else be eaten (selfish herd)
8.) be vigilant (watch out for predators)
9.) mob your predator
10.) don't be afraid to leave part of yourself behind
2.) be hard to eat
--chemical toxins, spines, thorns
3.) annoy your predator (chemical arsenal)
4.) be hard to see (cryptic coloration-- camouflage)
5.) be a faker (scare your predator or pretend to be bad to eat (batesian mimicry: a palatable or harmless species mimics an unpalatable or harmful species))
6.) be a truth teller (be bad to eat/poisonous and let the predator know it- aposematic coloration; strength in numbers- two or more species resemble each other)
7.) let someone else be eaten (selfish herd)
8.) be vigilant (watch out for predators)
9.) mob your predator
10.) don't be afraid to leave part of yourself behind
Defenses against predators
-Acute senses (find prey)
-speed, agility, jaws, teeth, poison (capture and subdue prey)
-speed, agility, jaws, teeth, poison (capture and subdue prey)
Predator adaptations
Interaction between organisms of two different species that involves direct physical contact
Symbiosis
Both species benefit
Mutualism (+/+)
One species benefits, other (apparently) unaffected
Commensalism (+/0)
One species benefits, other harmed (lives in or on host, who is harmed)
(smaller, reproduce faster, adapted to specific hosts, don't want to kill hosts)
(smaller, reproduce faster, adapted to specific hosts, don't want to kill hosts)
Parasitism (+/-) (usually r strategists)
Occurs when resources are scarce (not enough food to go around for everyone); two species that share the same limiting resource cannot coexist indefinitely (________ exclusion principle)
Competition (-/-); competitive
How an organism makes a living
Niche
All the resources it can possibly use
fundamental niche
The resources it actually uses (usually smaller than the fundamental due to competition)
realized niche
Two species can co-exist if they avoid what?
niche overlap
Competing species can use the same resource in a slightly different way or at different times
resource partitioning (avoiding competition)
two species living together act and look more differently than when they're apart
character displacement (avoiding competition)
What often outcompetes native species?
Exotic species
Organisms that have been accidentally or purposefully introduced to an area outside their region (invasive, alien, non-native)
exotic species
What are the three species with a large impact on community structure?
dominant species, keystone species, and ecosystem engineers
Species in a community that are most abundant or have the highest biomass (total mass of individuals in population)
Dominant species
-Most competitive in exploiting limiting resources
-Most successful at avoiding predation or disease
-Most successful at avoiding predation or disease
Hypotheses why a species becomes dominant
Species that has a high disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its abundance; identified by removal experiments
keystone
Species that causes a physical change in the environment
ecosystem engineers (foundation species)
Community of organisms interacting with each other and with their nonliving surroundings (fundamental processes: energy flow and biogeochemical cycling)
ecosystems
Must ingest food
Heterotrophs
Make own food
Autotrophs
Eat detritus (nonliving organic matter); some ingest, some absorb
Detritivores
Energy transfer along chain is inefficient --> limiting chain length
the energetic hypothesis
Amount of light energy converted into chemical energy
primary production
Plants use ____ percent of their chemical energy to carry out their life activities. The rest is to add biomass to the plant and that's available to the next trophic level.
50
Feces= 1/2 budget (500J)
Cellular respiration= 1/3 budget (320J)
Growth= 1/5 of budget (180J available to next trophic level)
Cellular respiration= 1/3 budget (320J)
Growth= 1/5 of budget (180J available to next trophic level)
primary consumer (secondary producer)
Increase in concentration of a substance in living organisms; can occur at high trophic levels; DDT- concentrates in biological tissues (persists in environment, high solubility in lipids, found in high concentrations at higher concentration levels)
biomagnification
On a global scale: return of CO2 to atmosphere by respiration closely balances removal by __________
photosynthesis
What's causing increasing atmospheric CO2? (2 things)
emissions from fossil fuels, and net release from land use change
Maintains temperature on Earth that are suitable for all life
greenhouse effect
Water vapor, human produced
((CO2, methane, NOx, CFCs))
((CO2, methane, NOx, CFCs))
greenhouse gases
-Polar ice caps are melting faster than ever (disrupting habitats, rising waters)
-The tipping point (positive feedback loop --- more energy retained, the warmer it gets)
-Permafrost melting <--> organic material decomposing (releasing more CO2)
-Change in precipitation patterns (drought, fewer days of frozen lakes)
-loss of species
-migratory bird declines (earlier warm weather, earlier caterpillars --> misses feast --> population levels decline; changing temps --> fish population moves --> can't find food)
-affects human health (insects thrive in warmer climates --> malaria; more CO2 favors ragweed and other pollen producing plants --> allergies; mold, dust storms --> respiratory distress; water shortages, heavy rains --> water contamination)
-The tipping point (positive feedback loop --- more energy retained, the warmer it gets)
-Permafrost melting <--> organic material decomposing (releasing more CO2)
-Change in precipitation patterns (drought, fewer days of frozen lakes)
-loss of species
-migratory bird declines (earlier warm weather, earlier caterpillars --> misses feast --> population levels decline; changing temps --> fish population moves --> can't find food)
-affects human health (insects thrive in warmer climates --> malaria; more CO2 favors ragweed and other pollen producing plants --> allergies; mold, dust storms --> respiratory distress; water shortages, heavy rains --> water contamination)
reasons why we don't want it to get warmer
About this deck
About StudyBlue
STUDYBLUE makes things that make you better at school.
Things like online flashcards with photos and audio.
Things like personalized quizzes and friendly reminders about when (and what) to study next.
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STUDYBLUE exists to make studying efficient and effective for every student, for free. Join us.
“I have been getting MUCH better grades on all my tests for school. Flash cards, notes, and quizzes are great on here. Thanks!”
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Kathy