final exam
Psychology 2012 with Patterson at University of Colorado Boulder
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What is the James Lang theory of emotion? What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion? How do they differ? Which one reflects a modern view of emotion?
-james lang- behaviors and physiological are directly elicited by situations and feelings and emotions produced by feedback from these behaviors and responses, says that we need autonomic system to be aware of feelings
-cannon bard- emotional experience and emotional expression are parallel processes that have no direct causal relationship, this predicts that we do not need autonomic and somatic feedback to be aware of our emotions
how can stress be defined?
-general alarm system in response to illness and injury and humans Han
-non physiological reaction caused by the perception or detection of aversive or threatening situations that may jeopardize homeostasis
which systems are activated in response to stress?
-limbic systems
-thalamus
-hippocampus
-amygdala
-hypothalamus
-emotional experiences may be product upon the cortex, and emotional expression is product up hypothalamus
-prefrontal cortex
what are the principle hormones released following stress? where are they synthesized?
-epinephrine and norepinephrine are released very quickly and are synthesized in the secretory cells of the adrenal medulla
-ACTH is released from the anterior pituitary gland
-glucocorticoids are released from adrenal cortex
what is the kluver bucy syndrome?
-removal of the temporal lobes which includes the amygdala in monkeys proved to have no fear
-flat affect
-consumption of everything edible
-increased sexual activity
-lack of fear
-investigate objects, especially with mouth
what is fmri? what does it tell us about the amygdala and emotion?
-indirectly measures neuronal activation, shows that amygdala is the central part for fear
-fmri, active neurons use oxygen and will show and increase of blood flow to that area
what is the limbic system?
-consists of interconnected brain structures that border the thalamus
-emotional expression and feelings and is activated by psychological stressors
-hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus
how do systemic stressors communicate with the brain?
-blood born pathogens, poisons, immune stressors, hemorrhage
-limbic system is not involved
-circumventricular organs (areas of the brain that do not have BBB)
-somatosensory system
-autonomic nervous system
what kinds of advantageous responses occur after acute stress?
-increase in heart rate and blood pressure to muscles
-mobilization of energy resources
-inhibition of inflammatory responses
-inhibition of sexual functions and sex steroid production and release
why is glucocorticoid negative feedback important?
-because it leads to less acth release
what types of health processes can chronic stress influence?
-hypertension and heart disease
-cancer
-gastrointestinal ulcers
-diabetes
-inhibition of growth
-infertility
-drug abuse and relapse
-suppression of immune system
-damage to the brain
why types of interventions can we do to decrease the deleterious effects of stress?
-stress resistance- a stressor has a smaller psychological and physiological effect
-stress resilience- a stressor has the same physiological effect, but consequences not as bad
-feeling in control
-eating healthy
-exercising
how do we define anxiety disorders? what are some of their symptoms? are they uncommon? what kinds of things can be risk factor for developing anxiety disorders?
-fear that disrupts normal functioning and persists in the absence of a direct threat
-fear, worry, nervousness, physical perturbations including tachycardia(heart palpitations), hypertension, nausea, sweaty palms, sleep disturbances, headache
-not uncommon
- risk factor: genetics, brain chemistry, personality, life events
what are the four major classes of anxiety?
-phobias- caused by exposure to a specific object or situation
-generalized- stress response in the absence of an obvious stimulus
-panic- rapid onset attacks characterized by extreme fear and stress symptoms
-OCD- recurring, uncontrollable
what are some common phobias? how are phobias commonly treated?
-acrophobia- high places
-agoraphobia-open places
-aquaphobia- water
-claustraphobia- confined places
-zoophobia- animals
-treatment; systematic desensitization
what are some characteristics of generalized anxiety disorder? what are some of the drugs commonly used to treat generalized anxiety disorder? how do they work?
-inability to relax, jitteriness, sense that something bad will happen, heart palpitations, difficulty concentration, fear of losing control or being rejected
-benzodiazepines (Librium, valium, xanax)- increase binding of GABA to its receptors, this plus alcohol can be lethal
-SSRI (prozac, luvox, paxil, zoloft)- antidepressants that alter serotonergic function
what are some of the characteristics of panic disorders? what are some of the risk factors for panic disorders?
- racing heartbeat, difficulty breathing, dizziness, trembling, choking, chest pains, hot flashes or sudden chills, tingling in fingers or toes, fear that one is going crazy or about to die
-stressful life events, physical sensations, more common in females than in males, genetic link
what is an obsession? a compulsion? is ocd rare? what are some particularly common types? how is it treated?
-obsession- recurrent unwanted anxiety producing thought
-compulsion- an impulsive behavior aimed at decreasing the anxiety
-yes it is rare, 2-3%
-germ anxiety and washing, counting, checking
-treatments; pharmacological: tricyclic antidepressants, SSRI; non pharmacological: cognitive behavioral therapy
what is cognitive behavioral therapy?
-behavior therapy; weakens the connections between troublesome situations and the habitual reactions to them
-cognitive therapy; teaches how certain thinking patterns are causing symptoms- by giving a distorted pic of whats going on
what is posttraumatic stress disorder? what are the three main symptoms associated with it? what are the common treatments?
-ppl who have experienced large scale disasters or the sudden death of a loved one
1. reliving of the traumatic event
2. avoidance behaviors and emotional numbing
3. exaggerated arousal in response to noises and other stimuli, difficulty sleeping, irritability or poor concentration
-treats; CBT, medication (antidepressants), and group therapy
what do we know about the neural basis of anxiety disorders?
-attention is focused on amygdala
-amygdala has large numbers of GABA receptors
-infusions of benzodiazepines into amygdala produce anxiolytic effects in animals and infusions of GABA antagonists do the opposite
how do we classify affective disorders?
-unipolar- depression
-bipolar- manic depressive disorder, depression and mania
what is the difference between reactive and endogenous depression? how common is major depression? what are some risk factors?
-reactive- in response to a specific event, loss
-endogenous- ongoing, appears independent of obvious external stimulus
-about 5%, likelihood of an episode of major depression in lifetime; 6%
what are the symptoms of depression?
-feelings of despair, pervasive loss of interest, sadness, irritability that will not go away, lethargy, fatigue, loss of energy, feelings of worthlessness, difficulty in concentrating, sleep disturbances
what kinds of drugs are used to treat depression? how do they work?
-monoamine oxidase inhibitors; inhibit enzyme that breaks down monoamines (norerpinephrine & serotonin), in combo with some foods can produce life threatening surges in blood pressure
-tricyclic antidepressants; block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine, usually more effective than MAOIs
-SSRI; action is sim to trycyclics and blocks serotonin, few side effects but can produce nervousness, not recommended for patients with both dep and anxiety
monoamine theory of depression
-depression is associated with under activity of serotonergic and noradrenergic synapses
electroconvulsive therapy
-used for patients who do not respond to antidepressants
-recommended for patients with strong suicidal tendencies because it works faster than antidepressants
-common side effect; memory loss and shock is limited to right side of hemisphere; because is less limited to memory loss and somehow activates activity in the left hem
st john's wort
-not regulated by the FDA and purity varies from one batch to another
-dangerous side effect; increase liver enzyme that breaks down many medications- decreases the effectiveness of other drugs
what is bipolar disorder? how does is it differ from depression, a unipolar affective disorder? what are the symptoms like? how is it treated?
-cycling between depression and mania
-mania-grandiose ideas, fleeting, elevated expansive mood, increased activity, increased speech...
-lithium, stabilizes mood, preventing a relapsing into mania and depression
-anticonvulsants have mood stabilizing effects can be used to treat bipolar episode
seasonal affective disorder
-depression that occurs during a particular season.. winter
-most common near the poles
-responds well to treatment with bright lights
what is tourette's syndrome? what are the symptoms like? how is it treated?
-tics, involuntary, repetitive movements; usually begins in childhood
-3 times more common in men
-genetic component
-often accompanied by OCD
-abnormalities in the basal ganglia and cortex
-treated with drugs that block dopaminergic function
what is schizophrenia?
-complex and diverse symptoms that often overlap with other mental illnesses
-negative symptoms; weak social interactions, emotional expression, speech, and working memory
-positive symptoms (sporadic); delusions- unfounded beliefs, and hallucinations-abnormal sensory experiences, hearing voices
-pet scans have determined that hallucinations occur activity in thalamus, hippocampus, and parts of cortex and enlargement of the ventricles, hippocampus reduced, abnormal cell
what are some of the causal factors?
-father's age
-regions of chromosomes
-prenatal trauma
-infection- ppl born in winter have higher chance of being schizo
-stress
-current view is that ppl inherit a predisposition for schizo which may or may not be activated by experience
what does the prefrontal cortex have to do with schizo?
-prefrontal matures very slowly and as the region assumes more functions, the damage would become more apparent
how is schizo treated?
-thorazine, first used to prevent swelling associated with surgery and found to calm patients down
-calms schizos down but activates catatonic ones
-sometimes halts the progress of disease if treatment begins early
-snake root plant, used in India for centuries but active ingredient reserpine can dangerously lower blood pressure
-drugs that block dopamine receptors especially in basal ganglia
-result can be tardive dyskinesia, tremors and involuntary movements and last for several years
Patient H.M. suffers from a devastating memory problem. How did this problem come about and what is the nature of the problem? What brain structures seem to be particularly important for forming and organizing memory?
-suffered from severe epilpesy and had epileptic foci in both medial temporal lobes
-had a unilateral lobectomy- portion of the of brain removed
-removal of hippocampus and amygdala is important for forming and organizing memory
What is the difference between anterograde and retrograde amnesia?
-anterograde, after event forgetting, amnesia for events that occur after some disturbance to the brain, such as head injury or certain degenerative brain disease
-retrograde, events prior to occurrence, amnesia for events that proceeded some disturbance to the brain, suck as head injury or electroconvulsive shock
What is the difference between short-term and long-term memory? What is memory consolidation? How does implicit memory differ from explicit memory, and how has H.M.’s case highlighted the difference?
-short term memory; immediate memory for events most of which are not consolidated into long term memories
-long term memory; relatively stable memories of events that occured in the more distant past
-memory consolidation; going from short term to long term
-he cannot form new memories but the practice and repetition of doing the same activity registered in h.m's head
Are episodic memories (memories for the events of one’s own life) more or less likely to be disrupted than semantic memories (memories for general facts or information)?
yes
What is Korsakoff’s Amnesia? What causes it, and what are its symptoms?
-brain damage resulting from malnutrition associated with chronic alcoholism
-antereograde and retrograde amnesia
-damage to mediodorsal nuclei of the thalamus
-confabulation; reporting of memories of events that id not take place without the intention to deceive
What is posttraumatic amnesia?
-blows to the head lead to a disturbance of consciousness, a complete loss of consciouness and anmesia
-generally both antereograde and retrograde amnesia
-older memories stored in a more permanent form through consolidation
-neural plasticity
What types of tasks are commonly used to test spatial memory in rodents? What are hippocampal place cells?
-morris water maze; requires rats to learn the location of an invisible stationary platform and find it when swimming in milky water
-radial arm maze; central chamber as many as 8 arms reaching in front of it, arms are baited with reward
-place cells; position in space, detection of where the animal is
What is Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) and why are neuroscientists so interested in it?
-enduring increase in synaptic strength resulting from prior activity at synapse, experience driven change
-studying the type of mechanism of memory
What are these types of changes, and are they similar to those associated with LTP?
- ltp can be produced by patterns of electrical stimulation that mimic normal brain activity
-ltp is most prominent in brain structures that are implicated in learning/ memory
-behavioral conditioning can produce ltp like changes in hypocampus
-cells that wire together fire together
What is the evidence that LTP is related to the neural basis of learning and memory?
-mutant mice that display little hippcampal ltp have difficulty learning the moris water maze
-Behavioral conditioning can produce LTP-like changes in the hippocampus
-Many drugs that influence learning and memory have parallel effects on LTP
AMPA receptors and NMDA receptors are both subtypes of ionotropic glutamate receptors, but they have different requirements for activation. What is this difference, and why is it important
• AMPA receptors open sodium channels – if many AMPA receptors are activated, the postsynaptic membrane becomes significantly depolarized
• The NMDA receptor channel opens (and sodium and calcium pass through) only when the membrane is already significantly depolarized
• This requirement for co-occurrence of activity provides further support for Hebb’s postulate and the putative role of LTP in learning
There are two major types of sudden-onset cerebrovascular disorders (Strokes). What are they, and what can cause them? What is an aneurism, a thrombosis, an embolism? What is arteriosclerosis?
-stroke can be caused by cerebral hemorrhages, bursting of an aneurysms or cerebral ischemia which is blockage
-aneurism; congenital (from birth) or the result of infection toxins
-thrombosis;plug (ex blood clot/ fat...) becomes lodges at the site of formation and does not travel
-embolism; plug travels from the sight of formation and becomes lodged into smaller vessels, traveling plug
-arteriosclerosis; blood vessel wall thickens and space inside narrows
Is the brain damage produced by ischemia complete immediately? Why is this important?
-yes ischemia is a blockage and hemorrahge is excess of blood.
-important because if you dont treat the ischemia within hours of the stroke the brain can have many cells deaths
What is a contusion; what causes it? What is the difference between a concussion and a coma? What is punch-drunk syndrome?
-contusion; damage to the cerebral circulatory system producing internal bleeding and a hematoma
-occurs when the brain slams against the inside of the skull
-blood can accumulate in the subdural space (duramater and anachnoid membrane)
-coma; complete loss of consciousness
-punch- drunk syndrome; repeated to the head slows movement and speech difficulties in some boxers
Brain infections - encephalitis - can be produced by some bacteria and viruses. Can you name a few known to attack the nervous system?
-syphilis; infecting bacteria may go dormant for years before coming virulent and attack many parts of the body including the brain, insanity and dementia
-rabbies; takes time to attack the brain- fits of rage and death
-polio; preferentially attacks motor neurons
-viruses can attack nervous sys but have no affanity for it
Brain damage can be produced by a variety of environmental toxins – can you name a few?
-mercury, mad hatters
-lead- crackpots
-some drugs can have neurotoxic effects
-tardive dyskinesia; tremors and other involuntary movements, can be produced by expose to certain antipsychotic medications
-younger brains are more susceptible to toxins
Neurons can respond to damage in at least three major ways. What are they and can you give examples of situations where each might occur? What process can produce sensations of a “phantom limb” after loss of the limb?
-degeneration, regeneration, and reorganization
-degeneration; cell death
-regeneration; formation of new axons/ new connections
-reorganization; collateral sprouting of axons, compensation of things, can produce a sensation of a phantom limb after loss of the limb
Can you list a few of the possible strategies for promoting recovery from brain/spinal damage currently being investigated?
-fetal tissue, fetal substantia nigra cells have been implanted in striatum of parkinson's diease
-stem cells; cells are pluripotent, blank new cells taking on the role of other cells
What are Circadian rhythms? What is a zeitgeber? What zeitgeber is particularly important for people?
-circadian; daily rhythms
-zeitgeber; external cues that help set circadian rhythms, zeit = time, gerber = givers, internal clock and light is important for humans in the zg
There are individual variations in human sleep wake cycles. Are most adolescents “larks” or “owls”?
- temporary owls
Are evening/ shift workers more or less prone to sleep-related problems?
- more prone to sleep re lated problems
-lose about 1.5 more hrs of sleep
-more prone to depression
Is it easier to adjust to phase advances or phase delays? In the case of jet lag? In the case of daylight savings?
-easier to adjust to phase delay
- jet lag, sucks more if you are traveling to the east to adjust to
-daylight savings, easier to adjust to when the time goes back
What function does the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus serve? Does information does it provide to the animal?
-the retinohyothamic pathway provides information about light to SCN
-isolated SCN tissue maintains its circadian rhythms
-transplants of SCN establish donor rhythms in recipient animals
-the SCN controls other internal clocks
-tells the animal whether it is day or night but not how the animal should behave
How do we study sleep and wakefulness? What are the characteristics of REM sleep, of slow-wave sleep?
-eeg
-study muscles
-study eye movements
• Slow-wave sleep (SWS) consists of progressively deeper stages of sleep, characterized by relatively synchronized theta and delta waves (slower with bigger amplitude).
• Rapid-eye-movement sleep (REM) is characterized by an EEG resembling wakefulness.
• 90–120 minute cycles characterize both sleep and wakefulness.
rem and sws sleep
-Slow-wave sleep (stages 3 and 4) show larger percentages of delta waves, slow or absent eye movements, no sexual activation, and normal muscle tone
-REM sleep combines an active EEG, rapid eye movements, sexual activation sometimes, and muscular paralysis
What do sleep patterns look like over the course of a typical night? What do sleep patterns look like over a lifetime?
- first four hours are more sws especially stages 3/4
- 2nd four hours are rem
-rem happens approximately every 90-120 min
-over a lifetime, less rem and sws and more awake
When does dreaming occur? How do dreams occurring during REM sleep differ from those during slow-wave sleep?
-during both rem and sws
-rem dreaming is more vivid, less logical, story like and longer
-sleep researchers have found that we usually dream about familiar places and routines but unfamiliar ppl
Why do we sleep? What are some of the probable functions of slow-wave sleep? - of REM sleep?
-keeps us safe
-preserves energy
-restores our bodies
-dreams incorporate ongoing functions and/or environmental events
-dreaming is a way to forget irrelevant information
-animals integrate memories and experience while dreaming
-sws; rest and repairs body and HGH is released in stages 3/4, deprivation produces joint and muscle pain
What are the anatomical terms for directions in the nervous system?
-dorsal, upward
-ventral, downward
-medial, middle
-lateral, sides
-anterior, front of the head
-posterior, back of the head
What structures and fluids support and protect the brain?
-skull, most outerlayer
-meninges, with three layers (dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater)
-CSF
What are the layers of the meninges? What fluid fills the subarachnoid space?
-dura mater
-arachnoid
-pia mater
-inbetween arachnoid and pia there is a space called subarachnoid which is filled with CSF
What is meningitis? Encephalitis? Why are they hard to treat?
-meningitis- infection of meninges of brain, as well CSF between them
-encephaltits- infection of the brain itself
Where is cerebrospinal fluid made? Where does it circulate? What condition can arise if this
circulation is impaired? What are the dural sinuses?
-CSF is produced in the Choroid plexus from blood plasma
-clear, colorless, containing a high concentration of salts
-involved in excreting wastes from brain
-circulates around brain in subarachnoid space, fills ventricle and central canal of spinal cord
-if circulation is impaired, subject can develop hydrocephalus- water head
-dural sinuses- blood filled spaces which run through the dura mater & drain in jugular veins of neck
What structures make up the central nervous system?
-brain
-spinal cord
What are the divisions of the peripheral nervous system?
-somatic ns
-autonomic ns
How does the autonomic nervous system differ from the somatic nervous system?
-autonomic ns, self regulation-automatic, working all the time efferent, includes parasympathetic, sympathetic, and entertic systems
-somatic ns, so move, sensory- carries sensory infor from skin, skeletal muscles, joints bones, motor- carries instructions from CNS to skeletal muscles, and cranial nerves- smell, vision, balance, hearing
The sympathetic nervous system is sometimes called the “fight or flight” nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system is sometimes called the “rest and digest” or “protect and preserve” nervous system. Why?
-sympathetic- fight/flight, dialates pupils, controls bladder, ready for take off
-parasympathetic- digestion repair and restoration, calming
What does the enteric nervous system do?
-regulation of the gut
What is a dermatome? Different organ systems and muscle groups are enervated by different spinal nerves that enter and exit the spine at different levels? What implications does this have for predicting the prognosis for individuals with spinal cord injuries at different levels of the spinal cord?
-dermatome, area of skin connected to a particular spinal nerve
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What does the size of a particular brain region relative to the rest of the brain tell you about the importance of that brain region for the animal?
-brain size is not necessarily predictive about what it can/cant do
-size of a brain region relative to the rest of the brain gives an indication of regions importance for animal
-human- large visual region
the hindbrain
Each of these structures is made up of smaller structures.
What are they, and in general terms, what do they do?
-metencephalon and myelencephalon
-reticular formation, involved in sleep, attention, movement, muscle tone, and cardiac/ respiratory reflexes
-pons & medulla, fiber tracts, controls respiration, heart rythms, blood pressure, coughing, sneezing, swallowing and vomiting
-cerebellum, important for fine motor control and cognitive process that require precise timing
the hindbrain
Each of these structures is made up of smaller structures
damage to these structures
-damage to pons, may result in double vision and partial paralysis of body
-damage to medulla, may cause death, create loss of pain and temperature sensation and make swallowing difficult
-damage to cerebellum, hinder walking, sitting upright is impossible, and cog problems?
the midbrain- mesencephalon
Each of these structures is made up of smaller structures.
What are they, and in general terms, what do they do?
-superior colliculi, visual formation
-inferior colliculi, auditory formation
-substancia nigra, dopaminergic neurons that communicate with the caudate nucleus and putamen in basal ganglia, parkinson's disease?
the forebrain- diencephalon
Each of these structures is made up of smaller structures.
What are they, and in general terms, what do they do?
-thalamus, top of brain stem, neurons would look like interneurons, processes and relays most sensory info
-hypothalamus, under thalamus, involved in almost all complex behaviors: feeding, sexual behavior, sleeping, temp regulation, fighting emotional behavior
-pituitary gland- releases hormones
the forebrain- diencephalon
Each of these structures is made up of smaller structures.
damage to these areas
-damage to thalamus- result in reduced/ boosted sensitivity to heat, cold, pain/pressure
-damage to hypo, results range from problems regulating body temp to emotional distubances, diabetes insipidus- extreme thirst and excretion of large amounts of urine
the forebrain- telencephalon
Each of these structures is made up of smaller structures.
What are they, and in general terms, what do they do?
-cerebral cortex, youngest part of NS
-interprets sensory input
-initiates voluntary movement
-mediates complex cognitive processes
What are fissues? sulci? gyri?
-fissure, furrows in cortex
-sulci, small furrows in the cortex
-gyri- ridges between furrows
What are the divisions of the cerebral cortex? In general terms, what does each region of cortex do?
-frontal lobe, planning/ emotion
-parietal lobe, body senses
-temporal lobe, controls learning, memory, hearing, associations and languages
-occipital lobe, controls vision
Each location in the sensory cortex receives information about sensation from a different body part. How does this compare with the organization of the motor cortex?
-regulates movement
What are the divisions of the cerebral cortex? In general terms, what does each region of cortex do? damage to these areas
-frontal lobe- alter ability to execute plans
-parietal lobe- interfere with recognition of touch/ pain, jumble knowledge of where body is in space
-temporal lobe, inability to recognize faces, even family members
-occipital lobes, harm eye sight causing blindness
Why is the limbic system important? What does the medial prefrontal cortex do? The hippocampus? The amygdala?
-circles the thalamus and involved in regulation of motivated behaviors
-medial prefrontal cortex- social behavior/ working memory
-hippocampus- learning, memory, stress
-amygdala, agressiveness, fear, anxiety, other related emotions
What relatively common disease results from inadequate release of dopamine in this system?
-parkinson's disease
basal ganglia
-voluntary motor responses
-caudate, tail like
-putamen, dopaminergic axons from substancia in midbrain, pathway generates Parkinsons
-globus pallidus, relates to OCD with thalamus, reverberating memory circuit with negative effect
A contrast X-ray technique is sometimes used for studying the cerebral vascular system (ex. looking for arthrosclerosis, aneurisms, etc). What is the name of this technique?
-cerebral angiography- dye injected into carotid artery, reveals displacement or enlargement of blood vessels
What is a CT scan, and what might it be used for?
-computer assisted x-ray procedure that can be used to visualize the brain and other internal structures of the living body, 3D images
-if the patient had a lesion somewhere
-static image
MRI
What are they used for, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each.
-passes strong magnetic field through head, causing certain molecules (hydrogen) to spin with a particular orientation, ex growing tumor
-advantages, does not expose the brain to xray like ct scan, better atonomical resolution
-disadvantage, $$$
-static image
PET
What are they used for, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each.
-provides images of brain activity, rather than structure
-inject radioactive 2d into patients carotid artery
-measures the level of radio activity of cells in brain regions
fMRI
What are they used for, and what are the advantages and disadvantages of each.
-detects the regional changes in the blood oxygenation due to activity- related changes in blood flow
-advantages, nothing is injected, provides structure/ functional info, and better resolution
What is Magnetoencephalography (MEG)?
-measures brain activity in terms of changes in magnetic fields measured on surface of the scalp
-advantage, can record fast changes in neural activity
What physical property of light plays a role in the perception of color? The perception of brightness?
-wavelength= color
-intensity= brightness
What is the conjunctiva? What is conjunctivitis (aka pink eye)?
-conjunctiva, mucus membranes that line the eyelid and protect eye
What are the principle structures of the eye, and what do they do?
- sclera, white tissue of the eye
-cornea, transparent outer covering of eye that admits light
pupil, adjustable opening in iris that regulates the amount of light that enters the eye
-iris, pigmented ring of muscles situated behind the cornea
-lens, consists of a series of transparent, onion like layers, shape can be changed by contraction of ciliary muscles(focusing images)
-retina, photoreceptive cells (rods/cones) and associated cells located on the inner surface of the posterior portion of eye
What is accommodation of the lens, and why is it important?
-accommodation, changes in the thickness of the lens (accomplished by the ciliary muscles) that focuses images of near/ distant objects on the retina
-which in the process, the lens refracts(bends) light and brings object in focus
What is the fovea?
-mainly to do with cones
-area of retina that provides the most acute vision
-contains only color-sensitive cones
Why do we have a blind spot? Why are we normally unaware of our blind spot?
-optic disk
-location of retina where fibers of ganglion cells (form optic nerve) and blood vessels exit the eye, help with specialized high acuity vision
-no photoreceptors found here
-completion, usually unaware of blind spot b/c visual system is able to use visual info from receptors near blind spot to complete image
Several common conditions produce errors of refraction (light is not correctly focused on the retina). What are these conditions?
-normal vision, focal point is on the retina
-astigmatism, uneven cornea/ lens
-near- sighted (myopic), eyeball too long or cornea too curved
-far-sighted, eyeball too short, or lens is too flat, or its losing its elasticity du to aging
What types of photoreceptors are found in the retina? Compare and contrast their functions.
-rods, photoreceptor cells of retina, sensitive to light or low intensity, high convergence
-cones, photoreceptor cells of retina, each is maximally sensitive to one of three different wavelengths of light (blue green red) and serves to encode color intensity, low convergence
Bipolar cells and ganglion cells are also found in the retinal – from which cells do they receive information, and to which cells do they transmit that information?
-bipolar cells, bipolar neurons located in the middle layer of the retina, conveying info from photoreceptor to ganglion
-ganglion, neurons that receive visual info from bipolar cells, axons give rise to optic nerve
What is convergence? Why are cones associated with high visual acuity and rods with high sensitivity to dim light?
-cones, low convergence, usually one cone sends signals to one ganglion cell, low sensitivity to dim light but high visual acuity
-rods, high convergence, inputs several rods sends signals to one ganglion cell, high sensitivity to dim light, low visual acuity
Where in the eye are most of the cones found? Most of the rods? Which are more numerous?
-cones, the fovea only has cones, on either side the # of cones drops of dramatically
-rods, more numerous than cones, found primarily in the periphery of the retina
Why do birds of prey have many high acuity receptors on the upper half of their retinas?
-top back vision, visual acuity
-high acuity in upper 1/2 of retina
Eye movements called saccades connect fixations, keeping the visual imagine in motion on the retina. Why is this important?
-eye continually scans visual field making a series of fixations~3 sec
-saccade- fixation connection by very rapid eye mvmt
-eye mvmts keep the image in motion of the retina
-image cant be seen if the visual stimulus remains fixed
-visual system neurons respond to change in stimulus
What is visual transduction? In general terms, how do photopigments work?
-transduction, process by which light energy is converted into neural signals (slow, graded receptor potentials) by rods and cones
-photopigments, absorbs light and changes conformation, releasing energy; responsible for the transduction of visual info
-the photopigment in rods require less light that in cones to undergo change
What distinguishes the three types of cones? Why are some people blind to some colors?
-each class of cone contains different photopigment
--differ in peak sensitivity to a particular wavelength of light
-some are particularly sensitive to blue, some to green, and some to red
Our sensitivity to different wavelengths (colors) of light differs under different lighting conditions. Why are we more able to see blues and greens in dim light?
-because in dim light rhodopsin can only absorb in blue-green range
-when a photon of light strikes rhodopsin, the molecule changes conformation, initiating a signaling cascade that closes na+ channels and hyper polarizes the rod cell
Information from the left visual field is processed in the right visual cortex. Since information about the left visual field is collected by both eyes, what must happen to information from the left eye at the optic chiasm? What cellular structures form the optic nerve?
COME BACK TO MEEEEE!!!
Visual information travels from the retina to the lateral geniculate nucleus in the thalamus and on to the primary visual (striate) cortex. What do the receptive fields of the cells along the way look like? What does the receptive field of an On-center cell look like? An off- center cell?
-Receptive fields are similar to those of ganglion cells, with an antagonistic center-surround system and cells that are either on- or off center, circular
-An on-center cell is stimulated when the center of its receptive field is exposed to light, and is inhibited when the surround is exposed to light
-Off-center cells have just the opposite reaction
What is contrast enhancement and how does it work?
-intensity is uniform across the bands, but darker edges look darker, lighter edges look lighter
-arises from the properties of receptive fileds
-receptive field, area of visual field within which it is possible for a visual stimulus to influence the firing
hubel wiesel ign on cell
-lateral geniculate nucleus
Cells in the middle layer of the primary visual cortex (close to the input) have patterns of responsiveness similar to those observed in retinal ganglion and lateral geniculate cells (they have circular receptive fields). Is this true of the receptive fields of cells farther from the imput?
-cells above and below the middle layer of visual cortex (farther from input) respond differently- they prefer stimuli in shape of bars/ edges, edges that move, edges moving in a particular direction
The organization of the primary visual cortex is said to be columnar. Why?
-cells that are closely related in functions group together to make these columns
-similar functions
-same receptors and interested in function of one eye
-fire and wire together
Why do people with untreated amblyopia or “lazy eye” tend to have poor depth perception?
-because they do not have binocular vision and you need two eyes for depth perception
what is biopsychology
-scientific study of behavior
fmri
-functional magnetic resonace souning
-detects regional changes in blood oxygentation due to changes in the blood flow
traditional divisions of biopsychology
physiological psychology
-done on animals, data is more evasive of the brain in controlled experiments
traditional divisions of biopsychology
psychopharmacology
-focuses on manipulation of NS and drugs
traditional divisions of biopsychology
neuropsychology
-study of psychology effects of brain damage in human patients
traditional divisions of biopsychology
psychophsicology
-studies the relationship between physiological activity and psychological processes in human subjects
-refers to studies conducted with humans and psychological effects
-ex hormonal changes
traditional divisions of biopsychology
cognitive neuroscience
studies the neural bases of cognition
fmri
traditional divisions of biopsychology
comparative psychology
-compares the behavior of different species to understand the evolution and adaptiveness of behavior
-where does evolution occur?
-lori santos does this
types of research
experimental
-subjects tested under two or more conditions
-independent variables- set or manipulated by researcher to produce different conditions
-dependent variable- the variable that is measured by the experimenter to assess the effect of the IV
-confounding variable- other unintended difference among condtions that can influence DV
types of research
experimental
between subjects
-different group of subjects are tested under each condition
-between people; manipulation and teaching
types of research
experimental
within subjects
-the same group of subjects is tested under each condition
-over time they are tested; before and after same ppl
types of research
quasi-experimental
-studies of groups of subjects who have been exposed to the condition of interest in the real world
-cannot control confounding variables but can develop screens to prevent the next onset
types of research
case studies
-studies that focus on a single case or subject
-not many ppl have a problem so sample size is very low
-extensive and rare info about ppl but does not tell us much about the general pop
theory
-integrates and interprets diverse observations in an attempt to explain some phenomenon
-good scientific theories generate new hypothesis
hypothesis
-statement about expected relationship two or more variables
Egas moniz
-Becky the chimp had trouble learning simple tasks
-moniz cut connections in front of brain and she became less troubled
-for the development of the prefrontal lobotomy received Nobel Prize in 1949
-person, rose kennedy, mildly retarded but functional, she was lobotomized and went catostrophic
-programs were largely based on chimp
-few effective strategies for retardation
-psychotherapeutic drugs released 1954
-lobotomies were used to cut connections to treat mental illness or try
nature v nurture
-16th cen Descartes proposed that humans have 2 aspects (physical and mental) and the earth was not the center of the universe
-this view is known as cartesian dualism where the brain and mind are separate and mental processes are extremely complex
process of theories over time
nature v nurture
genes v learning
genes v experience
interaction of genetic factors & experience
-tyron and maze- bright rats
how do glia cells and neurons differ
-neurons, nerve cells; specialized cells that receive info and transmit it to other cells
-glia, glue; provide physical and functional support to neurons, do not transmit info over long distances, out # neurons in the brain by 1/10 in size
Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal won the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1906 – what was it for?
-structural organization of NS
- Golgi, with Golgi stain, made it possible to see individual neurons, architecture of neurons
-Cajal in his lab in Valencia used Golgi stain to begin the study the fine structure of individual neurons (did this in his kitchen) with annotomical drawings
-Nissel- stained, ribosomes and labeling of individual cells nucleac acid
what are the major features of a typical neuron
-dendrite; biological antenna, collects info and transmit to cell body
-cell body (soma); contains nucleus which is the brain of cell
-axon- process that carries signal
-end foot (terminal button); terminal end of axon and form synapses, and spot where transmission occurs, chemical release
what are the major features of a typical neuron2
-myelin; fatty insulation around axon
-nodes of ranvier; gaps between sections of myelin
-axon hillock; cone-shaped region all the junction between axon and cell body
-cell membrane; the semipermeable membrane that encloses the neuron
afferent
-carries info from sensory receptors in skin to brain/ sensory info
efferent
-carries info from brain to neurons controlling muscles, causing a response/ info leavings
unipolar neurons
-cell body, somatosensory
bipolar neurons
-found primarialy in auditory, sensory/ vision systems
multipolar
-interneuron, receives info and process
How does the shape of a neuron relate to its function?
-shape of neuron determines its connections with other neurons and contributes to overall function of the system
-widespread dendritic branches, large amount of info coming in
-short branches on dendrites; pool input from few sources
sensory neurons
- neurons specialized to receive info from the environment, afferent neurons
interneurons
-handles local info
-ex connect sensory info to motor info, projectional neurons, afferent neuron
-thalamus- receiving and inputting info
motor neurons
-neurons specialized to cause movement
-receive info from brain and from boy
-efferent neurons, carrying away
synapse
-place where neuron makes contact with another structure
-where info gets transferred through chain to destination
-terminal button with synaptic vesicles and neurotransmitter sends chemical into the cleft
-post synaptic density- region where you find receptors for neurotransmitters
where can axons be found
-axo dendritic
-axo somatic
-axo axonic
types of synapes
-excitatory; glutamate
-inhibitory, gaba
-modulator-adrenergic; epinephrine/ nonenephrine
glia: supporting cells of the NS
-oligondendrocytes-form myelin sheath in the CNS
-schwann cells; form myelin sheath in the PNS
glia: supporting cells of NS2
-astrocytes; provide structural support for NS and pathways for movement of nutrients between blood vessels and neurons; regulate chemical composition of extracellular fluid; contributes to healing damaged brain tissue(glial scar); re-growth of spinal cord axons to get axon re growth
-micro glia; act as phagocyte(eating things) to protect the brain from invasion of micro organisms
-ependyma; lines the ventricles and other cavities around the brain; acts as barrier CSF!
mulitple sclerosis
-lack of myelination of brain and pathways of sensory info, commands to muscles, occurs in patches and scarring frequently
Blood Brain barrier
- semi permeable barrier between blood and brain produced by cells in walls of brains capillaries and astrocyes
-regulate the chemicals that can enter the CNS from blood
-is weak in a region of brain called area postrema, posions can be detected and vomitting
BBB
-small uncharged molecules can dissolve in fats of capillaries of wall to cross passively (o2)
-actively transported from blood into brain (glucose)
-does cross; glucose, nicotine, alcohol, oxygen
-does not cross; dopamine, viruses, penecillin
astrocytes in the brain, glia cell
-may help synchronize associated axons
-wrap presynaptic terminals or several axons
-take up chemicals released by axons and release them later
-helps to synchronize activity of the axons, enabling to send messages in waves, so all post synaptic neurons are stimulated
-coordinated activity!!
microglia in the brain
-act as phagocyte to protect brain and remove damaged tissue
-dense cells are reported by nissil
-mini tiny cells are dense and migrate to site of damage
-
ependimal cells
-line ventricles and other cavities around the brain
-act as barrier between CSF and brain
brain tumors
-most primary brain tumors grow from glia or other supporting cell
-gliomas; glia cells
-meningiomas; attach to the covering of the brain
-metastatic (start withcells from another location)
treatment
-usually surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy; chemicals do not pass BBB and often less successful
neural membrane
-lipid bilayer to keep some things in and some out
-semi permeable; critical for producing a difference in potential across the brain
-potential difference is caused by ion charged atoms
-cations; positve, sodium potassium
-anion; negative, chloride
-proteins embedded; ion channels
-receptors; site where neurotransmitter binds causing an immediate open or delay
-active transporters; pull certain substances into the cell
resting membrane potential
-membrane potential; difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a membrane and stores electrochemical energy
-resting membrane potential; in resting state the inside is more negative than the outside and it is between -60 to -70
forces that maintain the resting membrane potential
concentration gradient
-na+ more concentrated outside the cell, tends to drive it into the cell
forces that maintain the resting membrane potential
electrical gradient
-more positive charge outside the cell tends to drive na+ into the cell
forces that maintain the resting membrane potential
differential/ selective permeability
-in resting neurons, k+ and Cl- ions pass through the membrane easily, na+ with difficulty and proteins not at all
forces that maintain the resting membrane potential
sodium potassium pumps, using cellular energy
-3na+ ions are pumped out for every 2 k+ ions pumped in
-african arrow can readily pass through the pump because it is an inhibitor to sodium potassium
graded potentials
-neurons release chemical named neurotransmitters when they fire
-neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic clefts and bind to receptors on post synaptic side and this produces..
-excitatory post-synaptic potentials; depolarization and increase likelihood neuron will fire
-inhibitory post synaptic potentials; hyper-polarization and decrease likelihood the neuron will fire
how are epsp and ipsp integrated
-time and space/ temporal and spatial summation
The sum of the postsynaptic potentials reaching the axon hillock determines whether an action potential will occur. What does the threshold for firing an action potential reflect?
-all or nothing process
What produces the positive-going shift in membrane potential during the early part of the action potential?
-Na+ channels open and more na+ enter
Why does the membrane potential return to resting levels?
-na+ channels become refractory no more na+ enters cell, K+ continues to leave cell and cause membrane to return to resting period
absolute refractory period
-brief period after initiation of an action potential when another one cannot be fired (na+ channels temporarily inactivated) ion channel will not open
relative refractory period
-action potential can be fired but it requires greater than normal degree of stimulation related to ion channels
What is the Rate Law?
-size of action potential will always be the same
-epsp and ipsp are not the same size and typically space and time determines the size
-action potentials are always same size
-to determine the intensity check frequency
-only the rate varies with stimulus intensity/ frequency
propagation of an action potential is a regenerative process
-needs to travel down axon
-initial depolarization down hillock and adjacent side of the membrane is charged
-series of action depolarization down membrane for propagation
-postsynaptic potentials are graded and passive and do not make new ones on the way, the sum will determine if it will fire
-action potentials are not graded and they arrive and leave the same size
How do many local anesthetics work?
-produce loss of sensation in limited area of body
-many act by blocking na+ channels, and thus blocking action potentials in affected area
How do general anesthetics like ether and chloroform work?
-produce unconsciousness
-some decrease of brain activity by opening some types of K+ channels
-stimulus starts to excite a neuron by opening Na+ channels and K+ exit just as fast as Na+ and prevents most action potentials
Why is fugu poisonous?
-contain tetrotoxin and blocks na+ channels
-very small amounts can shut down signaling to a fatal degree
How can the speed of an action potential be increased?
-increase the size of the axon which decreases resistence
-insulation and myelination
How does salutatory conduction in myelinated axons work?
-ions can only pass through the axonal membrane only at nodes of Ranvier
-current diminishes as it travels rapidly but passively along the axon between the nodes but is still strong enough to open voltage gated channels
-new depolarization at the node and axon potential regenerates hitting the node
What are small-molecule neurotransmitters? Where are they produced and stored?
-amino acid, monoamine, AcH
-typically synthesized in synaptic button
-packed into small vesicles by buttons Golgi
-stored in clusters next to the presynaptic membrane
What are large-molecule neurotransmitters? Where are they produced and stored?
-neuropeptide, synthesized in soma, endorphins
-assembled on ribosomes in cells body
-packaged in larger vesicles by somas Golgi
-transported by microtubles down axon cell to terminal button
-large vesicles end up farther than presynaptic than smaller membranes
What steps are involved in releasing neurotransmitters? What is exocytosis?
-action potential arrives
-voltage sensitive calcium channels open
-Ca++ enters presynaptic button
-induces docking and fusion of synaptic vesicles to membrane
-exocytosis; neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft
How is synaptic transmission halted?
-re uptake and enzyme degradation
What is a receptor? What is a ligand?
-any molecule that binds to a receptor is a ligand of that receptor
-neurotransmitters are ligands of their receptor
-receptors are proteins embedded in the membrane that bind neurotransmitters
-lock and key arrangement
What are receptor subtypes?
-several different receptor proteins can bind the same neurotransmitter
-ex AcH and nicotine and muscarinic
How do ionotropic receptors differ from metabotropic receptor differ?
-inoic; binding of nt opens, or closes an ion channel creating post synaptic potentials, epsp/ ipsp
-metabotropic; binding of nt activates signal proteins and g proteins, g proteins subunit breaks off and binds to an ion channel, or stimulates production of 2nd messenger (signals/messages and modest changes in chemical arrangement)
What are examples of monoamine neurotransmitters?
-dopamine; movement, attention, learning, reward, parkinsons or too much is schizophrenia
-norepinephrine and epinephrine; fight or flight
-serotonin; eating sleeping and arousal/ mood, inhibits
-AcH contracts skeletal muscles, parasympathetic NS, important to attentional states
Acetylcholine is a small-molecule neurotransmitter – where is it used?
-used in the BBB and parasympathetic NS; protect and preserve
-motor system
Some amino acids can also be small molecule neurotransmitters – what are some examples and what do they do?
-Epsp, glutamate aspartate, binds and depolarizes
-Ipsp, GABA; hyperpolarization and dengeneration in basal ganglia, glycine; normally inhibits motor neuron activity in spinal cord
What are some examples of large-molecule (peptide) neurotransmitters?
-cell body
-very diverse types and functions
-ex. endorphins (endogenous opiates like morphine, releasing when exercising, runners high) also pain
-ex cholecystokinin (gut peptide, food intake)
-ex vasopressin (fluid regulation)
What are soluble gas neurotransmitters and what do they do?
-small molecules with different neurotransmitter characteristics
-produced in cytoplasm by enzymes and diffuses freely across lipid bilayers to neighboring neurons
-ex nitric oxide; regulates vascular relaxation, involved in learning and memory
-ex carbon monoxide; regulates vascular relaxation and peristatic relaxation
Many drugs and toxins act by mimicking or blocking the action of a neurotransmitter. What are some examples?
- neurotoxin curare blocks AcH receptors at neuro muscular synapses causing paralysis
-hunters in amazon tip their darts with curare to disable prey
-synthetic version of curare was once used as a muscular relaxant during surgery
Many drugs and toxins act by mimicking or blocking the action of a neurotransmitter. What are some examples?2
-tetanus toxins block the receptors for inhibitory NT GABA
-disease causes extreme muscle spasms- ripping of muscles and breaking of bones
-b/c of spasms occur first in neck and jaw, sometimes called lock jaw
-100 cases a year, million deaths per year worldwide
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