Final
Geology 121 with Olcott at University of Kansas
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What are problems adjusting to life in air from water?
No buoyancy in air, so need a support
Danger of drying out
Extremes of temperature
Gases behave differently when they not dissolved in water
No nutrients in the air
Danger of drying out
Extremes of temperature
Gases behave differently when they not dissolved in water
No nutrients in the air
Problems adjusting to life in the air from water for animals:
Refraction of light is different
Sound waves travel differently
Sound waves travel differently
What is Silurian?
Time where the first land plants evolved late Ordovician
How did plants start in the Silurian period?
Plants started out small, less than a yard high, this was a fundamental break through
Where do plants obtain their energy?
From the sun using photo synthesis
What happened before Silurian?
There were single and multicelled photosynthesis organisms (alge) in the oceans and likely single celled organisms land
corals would have formed many near shore, shallow water inhospitable
corals would have formed many near shore, shallow water inhospitable
What is the start of Silurian?
transition as multicelled and large photos organisms began to colonize the land in great numbers
When did plants evolve?
Plants evolved during the mid-Paleozoic
Siluriau of Wales
Lacked roots
Stem and nothing more
Siluriau of Wales
Lacked roots
Stem and nothing more
What did we have by the end of the Devonian?
We had all plant features except fruit and flowers
Threes were 100 ft tall
Relative of ferns and mosses
Threes were 100 ft tall
Relative of ferns and mosses
Why are plants significant for geology?
They bind soil and it prevents erosion
What happens when trees and plants are eliminated?
The soil quickly erodes by the wind and rain an example would be the dust bowl
What are prominent geological effects of vegetation?
Shape of rivers
Types of sediments
Rocks left behind by these rivers
Types of sediments
Rocks left behind by these rivers
Modern environments that lack significant vegetation
Death Valley, California
When do rivers form in Death Valley?
After major thunderstorms they have a geometry resembling braided hair= braided river
Where are braided rivers found?
Found at high altitudes or in very cold tundra
What causes braided rivers to have such a braided experience?
Absence of any vegetation to stabilize their banks, their sides quickly erode and the river flows the straightest course down the mountain or through the desert
Rocks of pre-silurian
always of a type associated with braided river system
only braided rivers can be found in silurian
characteristics deposits they left behind: found pre-silurian rocks
-helps with search to mars and other plants
only braided rivers can be found in silurian
characteristics deposits they left behind: found pre-silurian rocks
-helps with search to mars and other plants
Vertebrates
dominate the land, water, and air
Only arthropods come close to competing for the ecological niches
They dont have great fossil record
Only arthropods come close to competing for the ecological niches
They dont have great fossil record
What makes a vertebrate a vertebrate?
backbones
vertebrates also have a head where the sense organs are concentrated
vertebrates also have a head where the sense organs are concentrated
Haikouichthys
Earliest fish had eyes and perhaps nasal sacs
mouth and gills were on the underside of 'head'
mouth and gills were on the underside of 'head'
Astraspis
Bony plates developed
Similar to sharks in that they had no internal body skeleton but instead had hard outer skin
mineralized bony plates on the some/all of their bodies
plated skin
Similar to sharks in that they had no internal body skeleton but instead had hard outer skin
mineralized bony plates on the some/all of their bodies
plated skin
What happened because of Astraspis bony plates?
This made the early fish slow with bad acceleration
had eyes a brain a nose cone for cutting through the water
had eyes a brain a nose cone for cutting through the water
What did Astraspis not have?
Jaws, all early fish were jawless, ate algae and bacteria out of soft sediment
How did fish evolve through the Ordovician and Silurian period?
Became better suited to feeding in specific environments
became better swimmers
eventually evolved jaws
became better swimmers
eventually evolved jaws
By what period did jaw less fish evolve to ecological roles?
Late Silurian period but were still limited by what they could eat
(small, soft particles)
(small, soft particles)
Evidence shows that jaws were invented by who?
The Silurian but the fossil record is sparse and poorly understood
By what period did we have clear evidence for jawed fish?
Devonian
First jawed fish?
Dunkleosteus
6 m long body, 2m long head, and weighed as much as 3 elephants
6 m long body, 2m long head, and weighed as much as 3 elephants
By the end of the Devonian
Dipterus
Bony fish, which are faster and more maneuverable than the plated fish
Bony fish, which are faster and more maneuverable than the plated fish
Osteolepiforms
Lived in shallow waters around coasts and in inland waters
not successful, always outcompeted by rayfins
not successful, always outcompeted by rayfins
What happened when there was a huge radiation of plant forms in the Devonian and Osteolepiforms starting taking over the land?
This fish adapted to fill this new niche to eat all the delicious nutrients that now were to be found at the shoreline
Eusthenopteron
This fish evolved nostrils and the internal passage used for air breathing
the same system all land vertebrates use today
the same system all land vertebrates use today
Why would a fish need the same system all land vertebrates (eusthenopteron) use today?
Air has much more oxygen than water, especially when the water is shallow warm filled with organic debris from the land
Fish and Air bubbles
Some living fish bite off bubbles of air and hold them in their mouths
**turtles, crocodiles, insects and spiders also use this trick
allows much more efficient oxygen intake especially in dirty water
**turtles, crocodiles, insects and spiders also use this trick
allows much more efficient oxygen intake especially in dirty water
What did eusthenopteron fish evolve that resemble tetrapod limbs?
They evolved lobes fins that resembled and operated like tetrapod limbs
What use would lobe fin 'feet' be to eusthenopteron be?
allow the fish to pole their bodies over mudflats
sunned themselves on mudbanks
**this behavioral thermoregulation would have sped up digestion
***which is why crocs do it today
sunned themselves on mudbanks
**this behavioral thermoregulation would have sped up digestion
***which is why crocs do it today
What is the stronger more competitive advantage to being able to have lobe fin 'feet'?
The fish could use these strong lobe fins to move just in or so over land or very shallow water they could lay their eggs in lagoons or warm shallow pools and sheltered backwaters nearby since it is very dangerous time in a fishs life is when it is an egg
What is a tetrapod?
are vertebrate animals having four limbs. Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are all tetrapods; even snakes and other limbless reptiles and amphibians are tetrapods by descent
Tetrapods
Their skull bones the general size, shape, and geographic distribution and the pattern of bones in the fish are all close to those of the earliest tetrapods
Lobe fins bones are in what type of pattern?
All in a 1-2-several-many pattern like tetrapod
Fish to tetrapods
As the walking on land became more and more important the lobe fins would have continused to evolve and strengthen eventually becoming limbs
Changes that would have occurred with fish to tetrapods?
Leathery skin to prevent water loss
Senses improved for air, not water
Senses improved for air, not water
What did tetrapods do first?
They were the first to evolve to feet, not fins
these are complex structures with many bones so would have been slow
lost to fossil records
only have bits and pieces of the earliest tetrapods
these are complex structures with many bones so would have been slow
lost to fossil records
only have bits and pieces of the earliest tetrapods
Elginerpeton
Oldest likely tetrapod. Leg bones indicated that it probably had feet (although we dont have any preserved feet)
Large, the jaw alone was 1 ft
Large, the jaw alone was 1 ft
When was elginerpeton found?
Late Devonian rocks
368 Ma
368 Ma
What are the different species of tetrapods?
Acanthostega
Ichthyostega,
Tulerpeton
all large could not survive on the terrestrial plants and arthopods
must have eatin fish in the water
Ichthyostega,
Tulerpeton
all large could not survive on the terrestrial plants and arthopods
must have eatin fish in the water
Acanthostega
Functional gills, weak forlimbs and its 8-toed lower limbs were still quite flipper like
ichthyostega
Had a massive skeleton but still close to osteolepiforms in its structure
Had massive ribcage, limbs, and feet with 7 toes
Ear seemed designed to hear underwater sounds so must have dwelled in the water part of the time
Had massive ribcage, limbs, and feet with 7 toes
Ear seemed designed to hear underwater sounds so must have dwelled in the water part of the time
Tulerpeton
Skeleton much less complete
Had 6 toes and seemed to have been able to walk quite well
Had 6 toes and seemed to have been able to walk quite well
Pederpes
(early carboniferous)
Five toed behaved like a small crocodile
First tetrapod with feet genuinely adapted for walking on land
Five toed behaved like a small crocodile
First tetrapod with feet genuinely adapted for walking on land
Eucritta melanonlimnetes
"creatures from the black lagoon"
As tetrapods evolved they split into many lineages, which two survived?
Amphibians
Amniotes
Amniotes
Amphibians
Cold blooded animals who are aquatic when juvenile then metamorphose to terrestrial forms when they are adults
** like what?
eggs laid in the water
** like what?
eggs laid in the water
Amniotes
These have a terrestrially adapted egg
Laid eggs have features to protect and nourish the fetus
Laid eggs have features to protect and nourish the fetus
Amphibian ancestors
There are a wide variety of carnoniferous tetrapods though to represent the ancestors of amphibians
over 40 families and 160 genera of the temnospondyls
over 40 families and 160 genera of the temnospondyls
Temnospondyl
These tetrapods were all large with teeth like those found in the osteolepiform
Have heavy bones and feet designed for walking
probably looked and acted much like crocodiles
Survived until Cretaceous
Have heavy bones and feet designed for walking
probably looked and acted much like crocodiles
Survived until Cretaceous
What are Early Amniotes
Small, about the size of a lizard
**also had similar body proportions posture and jaw mechanics
** had similar ecology
**also had similar body proportions posture and jaw mechanics
** had similar ecology
Why were the Early Amniotes necks joined?
So that they could move in 3 dimensions
**compare to the early tetrapods and their long heavy skulls that could just go up and down
**compare to the early tetrapods and their long heavy skulls that could just go up and down
What could land provide?
a great deal of food, in addition to a safe place to breed
this food was manly insects, worms, and grub all of which was small
easier to find and catch this prey if small as well
this food was manly insects, worms, and grub all of which was small
easier to find and catch this prey if small as well
Oldest Amniotes
These are found in the Late Carboniferous
*tree trunks in Nova Scotia were found fossilized upright, and the amniotes were found inside
*tree trunks in Nova Scotia were found fossilized upright, and the amniotes were found inside
By the end of the Carboniferous what happened to the tetrapods?
They had fully make their move to land
Who is all evolved in the middle Paleozoic?
Plants
Invertebrates
and Vertebrates
Invertebrates
and Vertebrates
Where do the proglems come from during the Paleozoic?
Living in the air, not from living on land
Many sea organisms interact with the sea floor
*Crawl on it, burrow in it attach to it
Living on dirt not so different
Many sea organisms interact with the sea floor
*Crawl on it, burrow in it attach to it
Living on dirt not so different
Buoyancy
Organisms seem to weigh much less in the water
Out of the water you need a support system to help fight gravity
Out of the water you need a support system to help fight gravity
Desiccation
air is humid but not continuously saturated
Tiny organisms especially at risk as they have a large surface area to volume
Tiny organisms especially at risk as they have a large surface area to volume
Temperature extremes
Temperatures are much more variable out of the water
Water is full:
of dissolved nutrients
Extra problems for animals
Refractive index of light different in air and water
sound waves travel differently too
sound waves travel differently too
Why are we not sure of when land plants originated?
These early plants must have been largely aquatic living in swamps and marshes
Almost all features of land plants solutions to the problems of living in the air
Almost all features of land plants solutions to the problems of living in the air
Problem: no buoyancy in the air, so need a support, What is the adaption?
Plants have hydrostatic pressure supports or wood
Problem: Danger of drying out, What is the adaption?
Have waterproofing material to prevent water loss
Problem: Extremes of temperature, what is the adaption?
Have seasonal cyclicity
Problem: Gases behave differently when they are not dissolved in water, Adaption?
Roots gather nutrients and water from water in the soil
Problem: no nutrients in the air, adaption?
Internal transport system moved nutrients and water around the whole plants
Possible scenario for the evolution of land plants
water dwelling green algae was multicellular and reproduced by sporing
these grow very fast in shallow water as there is alot of light and nutrients
fastest growing cell of the algae need more energy than their individual photosynthesis can provide
these grow very fast in shallow water as there is alot of light and nutrients
fastest growing cell of the algae need more energy than their individual photosynthesis can provide
conducting strand
Early plants developed a simple pipe the conducting strand to transport water upward
Early plants and desiccation
They began to evolve a waxy coating over the exposed upper surfaces
**this protects against drying out and it prevents over saturation
***could have provided protection against UV and predation as well as providing some structural support
**this protects against drying out and it prevents over saturation
***could have provided protection against UV and predation as well as providing some structural support
Problems with cuticle?
Cant absorb nutrients through the cuticle
cant absorb CO2 through the cuticle
cant absorb CO2 through the cuticle
Roots
Roots solve the first problem The lower part of the plant would take up the nutrients and water, and eventually those cells would specialize into roots
Stomata
These are pores in the cuticle where CO2 intake is concentrated If it is too hot or dry, stomata get closed by guard cells that flank the holes
Gas transport
Plants evolved an intercellular gas transport system that led from the stomata to the spaces between the cells
also allowed nutrients and oxygen to get to the roots
also allowed nutrients and oxygen to get to the roots
Why would you need gad transportation?
Plants eventually refined this system further
these are the vascular plants
these are the vascular plants
Vascular plants
Passive system made by elongated dead cells laid end to end
the water carries dissolved nutrients with it
the water carries dissolved nutrients with it
xylem
Only carry water and nutrients up
Plants have to overcome many problems to move to the air, why do they bother?
sunlight!
Silurian plants
No good plant fossils until late Silurian
Included vascular forms
A lot of evolutionary processes not preserved in the fossil record
Included vascular forms
A lot of evolutionary processes not preserved in the fossil record
Cooksonia
The earliest vascular plant
Had xylem preserved, have stomata preserved
Had xylem preserved, have stomata preserved
Aglaophyton
Most have grown in shallow water or thick clumps
Life stype helped with this as they reproduced by building off of a phizome at the base
Non vascular
Life stype helped with this as they reproduced by building off of a phizome at the base
Non vascular
Rhynia
Vascular plant Found in the Rhynie Chert, a
lagerstatten of Early Devonian
plants
This site preserves the
molecular structure of of plants
lagerstatten of Early Devonian
plants
This site preserves the
molecular structure of of plants
Psilophyton
Much taller (2m) and more rigid
than the Early Devonian plants
than the Early Devonian plants
Archaeopteris
Woody plant with true roots
and both male and female seeds
Important advance as then
reproduction could all be done
out of the water
and both male and female seeds
Important advance as then
reproduction could all be done
out of the water
Plant Diversity Patterns
• Plants diversify in the Silurian and Early
Devonian
• Plateaus until the Carboniferous
• Another diversity increase then
• Plateaus until the Mesozoic to reach today’s
values
Devonian
• Plateaus until the Carboniferous
• Another diversity increase then
• Plateaus until the Mesozoic to reach today’s
values
Different pattern than what is seen in the marine realm, why?
• All plants do about the same thing
• They are all on the same place in the food
chain
• Cannot partition up niches as easily as
animals can
• They are all on the same place in the food
chain
• Cannot partition up niches as easily as
animals can
Plants and Climate Change
• If the climate changes, plants have to adapt,
migrate or become extinct
• Often, very hard for them to migrate
• For instance, in the Pleistocene, plants in
Northern Europe became caught between
two glacial fronts and went extinct
migrate or become extinct
• Often, very hard for them to migrate
• For instance, in the Pleistocene, plants in
Northern Europe became caught between
two glacial fronts and went extinct
Plants and Mass Mortality Events
• On the other hand, plants are much more resistant
to temporary stresses, even if they are
catastrophic
• Shed leaves and branches to survive
• Ground has plenty of seeds, so plants are
quick to come back after fire, drought, etc
• Can be seen after volcanoes, fires, etc
today
• Some plants even specialize in colonizing
disaster areas
to temporary stresses, even if they are
catastrophic
• Shed leaves and branches to survive
• Ground has plenty of seeds, so plants are
quick to come back after fire, drought, etc
• Can be seen after volcanoes, fires, etc
today
• Some plants even specialize in colonizing
disaster areas
When heat causes thermal expansion what happens?
• This would make the water volume rise
some
• Water’s volume increases ~0.5% for
every 20*C increase in temperature
• The Cretaceous sea surface
temperature could have been up to
~10*C warmer than now
some
• Water’s volume increases ~0.5% for
every 20*C increase in temperature
• The Cretaceous sea surface
temperature could have been up to
~10*C warmer than now
Why does thermal expansion do what it does?
The ocean’s volume today is ~1.3 billion
km3 (310 million miles3)
• A 10*C rise would make the volume
increase by 3.25 million km3
• Not enough to explain the sea level
rise
km3 (310 million miles3)
• A 10*C rise would make the volume
increase by 3.25 million km3
• Not enough to explain the sea level
rise
Western Interior Sea
• About as large as the Mediterranean Sea is
today
• This sea existed for most of the last 70 my
of the Cretaceous
• Almost until the end of the Cretaceous
today
• This sea existed for most of the last 70 my
of the Cretaceous
• Almost until the end of the Cretaceous
Western Interior Sea
At its deepest, the sea was <200 m (~600 ft) Shallower than all of the Great
Lakes, except Lake Erie, are today
Lakes, except Lake Erie, are today
“Coccocylinders”
These are usually spheres, but
this rare cylinder form was
found in KS
this rare cylinder form was
found in KS
Coccoliths
the discos are called coccoliths
When organisms die what do you think happens to the coccoliths?
They get deposited on the sea floor producing chalk
Chalk
The Cretaceous has many chalk
deposits
deposits
Kansas Chalks
These chalks, the Smoky Hill Chalk, were
deposited in the shallow sea under water
that periodically went anoxic
• Or at least had a periodic low oxygen
content
deposited in the shallow sea under water
that periodically went anoxic
• Or at least had a periodic low oxygen
content
bc of Kansas Chalks what would this mean for fossil preservation?
This site is considered a
lagerstatte, as it preserves such a
wealth of information about life
in the Western Interior Seaway
between 87-82 Ma
lagerstatte, as it preserves such a
wealth of information about life
in the Western Interior Seaway
between 87-82 Ma
who was the first ever to collect a fossil in 1804?
Lewis and Clark
How did Lewis describe the Smoky Hill Chalk?
The petrified jaw bone of a fish
Inoceramus
Giant bivalves that lived on the sea floor
Uintacrinus
Like crinoids
but unlike the other crinoids we have seen so far these were not stalked
they would swim around the sea filter feeding
but unlike the other crinoids we have seen so far these were not stalked
they would swim around the sea filter feeding
In the Cretaceous who were the reefs built by?
Rudists oddly shaped molluscs
Rudists
Colonial
There were not rudists in the sea above kansas bc the water was to cold
There were not rudists in the sea above kansas bc the water was to cold
Sharks
No bones
just cartilage
just cartilage
Is it possible to preserve a shark?
Sometimes the sharks can get preserved if enough calcium carbonate percolates through as it is decomposing
Voracious predators are found with what inside of them
Often found with whole or partial fish inside of them
What is another name for Voracious predators?
bulldog fish
Protostega and Archelon
Turtles
Shells were not solid
supported a leathery carapace
Shells were not solid
supported a leathery carapace
Life in the western interior sea
all of these fossils are at least recognizable
we have similar if small versions of these types of animals today
there were also odd animals in the sea
we have similar if small versions of these types of animals today
there were also odd animals in the sea
Mosasaurs
Thought to be relatives of the monitor lizard
Air breathing predators that grew up to be 17m
Air breathing predators that grew up to be 17m
How did mosasaurs give birth?
They were adapted to the sea very well so they gave birth in the sea vs on land
Things found in the stomach of a Mosasaurs
Pieces of shark, fish, birds and other mosasuras have been found in their stomachs as well
Elasmosaurus
Short necks & long tails
Reconstructed originally with its head on its tail
Reconstructed originally with its head on its tail
Plesiosaurs
Often with heads out of water
Could not support such a large weight above
the water with only the small part of the body
below the water
• Also, their eyes are on the top of their heads :: therefore they prob lived under water
Could not support such a large weight above
the water with only the small part of the body
below the water
• Also, their eyes are on the top of their heads :: therefore they prob lived under water
Gastroliths
These were up to 13 kg (29 lbs) of smooth
round rocks
• often silica rocks
• Thought to be used for digestion
• like many birds and reptiles do today
• And/or for buoyancy
round rocks
• often silica rocks
• Thought to be used for digestion
• like many birds and reptiles do today
• And/or for buoyancy
Natural selection is still working on us, what are the factors?
Diet
Disease
Climate
Disease
Climate
What is Malarial resistance due to?
Presence of a few genetic mutations
proved beneficial in sub-saharan africa
proved beneficial in sub-saharan africa
Where is small pox found?
ancestors who lived in European cities
Where are darker skin tones found?
Populations originating near the equator
Where are lighter skin tones found?
near the poles
What does Melanin provide?
skin pigmentation,
is a very good UV blocker, which also
prevents the production of excess vitamin
is a very good UV blocker, which also
prevents the production of excess vitamin
Why are we still picking up new genetic traits faster than humans ever did in the past?
Globalization
The world is much smaller than
it was in the past, and people live
in much larger communities
This allows disease to travel
much faster
The world is much smaller than
it was in the past, and people live
in much larger communities
This allows disease to travel
much faster
Greenhouse Gases
W.o them the earth would be too cold to habitable
problem is when there are too many
of them and too much heat gets trapped
problem is when there are too many
of them and too much heat gets trapped
Consequences of this
temperature rise?
temperature rise?
Snow/ice melt
• Sea level rise
• Sea level rise
What is to be done about globalization?
• Reducing carbon dioxide emissions is a
good place to start
good place to start
What do Hominoids include?
include gibbons, orangutans,
chimps, gorillas, and hominids (which
includes us)
chimps, gorillas, and hominids (which
includes us)
What is the earliest hominid?
Sahelanthropu, known as a skull piece
Is odd as it has primitive
characteristics (small brain) and
advanced characteristics
Is odd as it has primitive
characteristics (small brain) and
advanced characteristics
Early hominid Orrorin have:
Limb bones only
<ay have been an early gorilla
<ay have been an early gorilla
Earliest Australopithecines
Ardipithecus ramidus: found in Ethiopia
Australopithecus anamensis: found in Kenya
Australopithecus anamensis: found in Kenya
What are the Earliest Australopithecines known as?
Skeleton fragments
A ramidus is very:
primitive and ape like
A anamensis had:
an ape like jaw but bipedal posture
Foot prints found where?
Laetoli found in Northern Tazania by East Africa Rift
What happens when volvanoes ash gets wet?
When carbonatite ash gets wet
the sodium carbonate dissolves
and the ash sets as a natural
cement
the sodium carbonate dissolves
and the ash sets as a natural
cement
What are some of the benefits of being
bipedal?
bipedal?
Carry things
• Children, tools, food
• Gather food over a greater range
• climbing
• Better for defense
• see farther, throwing/weapons
• Better resistance to heat stress
• Allows migration with helpless young
• Children, tools, food
• Gather food over a greater range
• climbing
• Better for defense
• see farther, throwing/weapons
• Better resistance to heat stress
• Allows migration with helpless young
Hadar
Was lush
Had a lake fed by rivers coming
out of the winter snowfields on
the plateau of Ethiopia
Hippo and elephant skeletons
also suggest that there was lots
of vegetation
Had a lake fed by rivers coming
out of the winter snowfields on
the plateau of Ethiopia
Hippo and elephant skeletons
also suggest that there was lots
of vegetation
Lucy
Perhaps the most famous early
hominid
Found at Hadar, and is the most
complete skeleton there
hominid
Found at Hadar, and is the most
complete skeleton there
“Lucy’s Baby”
Recently, a complete toddler was
found
Hope is that this complete
skeleton will yield more
information
found
Hope is that this complete
skeleton will yield more
information
Sexual
dimorphism
dimorphism
In primates, extreme
dimorphism is only seen when
there is intense physical
competition for the females
Monogamous species have little
dimorphism.
dimorphism is only seen when
there is intense physical
competition for the females
Monogamous species have little
dimorphism.
The oldest Homo
• The oldest example of the genus Homo
appeared ~2.4 Ma
• This species is only known from an upper
jaw, so it has no name
appeared ~2.4 Ma
• This species is only known from an upper
jaw, so it has no name
Homo habilis
'handy man'
Still small (just over 1m tall), and
weighed ~30-50 kg (65-110 lb)
While their bodies were about
the same size as an
Australopithecus, the brain was
much larger--650cc
51
Still small (just over 1m tall), and
weighed ~30-50 kg (65-110 lb)
While their bodies were about
the same size as an
Australopithecus, the brain was
much larger--650cc
51
Oldowan tools
• Stone was used in a deliberate way
• For example, a hippo skeleton has been
found lying near an ancient river bed
• Near the hippo were river rocks that had
been broken into tools
• There were scrape marks on the hippo
bones and the tendons and ligaments
had been cut
• For example, a hippo skeleton has been
found lying near an ancient river bed
• Near the hippo were river rocks that had
been broken into tools
• There were scrape marks on the hippo
bones and the tendons and ligaments
had been cut
Stone tool
recreation
recreation
Nicholas Toth, at Indiana, had
fashioned these tools and used
them to butcher large carcasses.
Very effective tools.
fashioned these tools and used
them to butcher large carcasses.
Very effective tools.
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Things like online flashcards with photos and audio.
Things like personalized quizzes and friendly reminders about when (and what) to study next.
Think of it as a digital backpack™: access to all of your study materials online and on your phone.
STUDYBLUE exists to make studying efficient and effective for every student, for free. Join us.
“Simply amazing. The flash cards are smooth, there are many different types of studying tools, and there is a great search engine. I praise you on the awesomeness.”
Dennis
Dennis