History of Theories

StudyBlue printing of History of Theories html, body, div, span, applet, object, iframe, h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, p, blockquote, pre, a, abbr, acronym, address, big, cite, code, del, dfn, em, font, img, ins, kbd, q, s, samp, small, strike, strong, sub, sup, tt, var, b, u, i, center, fieldset, form, label, legend, table, caption, tbody, tfoot, thead, tr, th, td { margin: 0; padding: 0; border: 0; outline: 0; font-size: 100%; background: transparent; } body { line-height: 1; } blockquote, q { quotes: none; } blockquote:before, blockquote:after, q:before, q:after { content: ''; content: none; } /* remember to define focus styles! */ :focus { outline: 0; } /* remember to highlight inserts somehow! */ ins { text-decoration: none; } del { text-decoration: line-through; } /* tables still need 'cellspacing="0"' in the markup */ table { border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0; } /* end RESET */ .header { min-width:800px; } .logo { padding:6px 20px 2px 20px; margin:0; font-size:25px; font-weight:bold; color:#808285; position:relative; border-bottom: 1px solid #c5c5c5; } .logo-blue { color:#70adc4; } .logo-desc { font-weight:normal; font-size:19px; color:#cccccc; margin-top:50px; position:absolute; display: none; } .back-button { position:absolute; top:20px; right:20px; font-size:13px; line-height:25px; color:rgb(0,175,225); font-weight:normal; } .back-button a { color:rgb(0,175,225); } .instructions { padding:0; margin:0; width:100%; position:relative; color:rgb(100,100,100); } .step-holder { border-left:1px solid #ededed; margin-left:20px; } .steps { padding:15px 0; float:left; width:24%; border-right:1px solid #ededed; text-align:center; } .steps-01 { } .steps-02 { } .steps-03 { } .steps-04 { } .label { padding:5px 10px; } .print-button { } .print-button a { background-color:rgb(0,175,225); color:white; line-height: 19px; padding:9px 8px 5px 30px; font-size:14px; text-decoration:none; background-image: url(images/printer.png); background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: 7px 50%; -moz-border-radius: 5px; -webkit-border-radius: 5px; } .print-button a:hover { background-color:black; } .theNote .content { width: 8.0in !important; margin: 5px auto; padding:20px; background-color:white; } .theNote .header { border-bottom: 1px dashed #C8C8C8; font-size: 17px; padding: 0 0 10px; line-height: 19px; color: #00ADE1; min-width:500px; } .theNote .body { font-size: 14px; line-height: 19px; padding: 10px 0; } .theNote{ padding:6px 0; clear:both; background-color: rgb(200,200,200); } .theNote h3{ color: rgb(100,100,100); } .theNote h1, .theNote h3{ background-color:white; padding:2px 20px; width:8.0in !important; margin: 0 auto; font-size: 15px; } .theNote h1{ padding-top: 10px; font-size: 15px; } .theNote h1:first-child{ font-size: 20px; } .theNote h3 { font-size: 14px; font-weight: normal; } #options { border: 3px double #ccc; padding: 5px 12px; margin: 10px 50px 10px 20px; float: left; } #info { border-top: 1px solid #ccc; padding-top: 5px; font-style: italic; } li { margin: 5px 10px 5px 25px; } ul li { list-style: disc; } ol li { list-style: decimal; } img { border: 0; } table { clear: both; width: 100%; border: 1px solid #c5c5c5; border-width: 1px 0; margin: 0; page-break-after: always; } table#page { page-break-after: auto; } td { text-align: center; font-size: 12px; border-bottom: 1px dashed #c5c5c5; height: 1.75in; width: 50%; padding-left: 15px; } .leftside { border-right: 1px solid #cccccc; padding: 0 15px 0 0; } .bottom td { border-bottom: none; } .clearfix { clear:both; line-height:1px; height:1px; } img { max-width:80%; max-height:150px; margin:20px; } @media print {.header { display: none; } .content .header{ display:inherit; } table { border: 1px dashed #bbb; border-width: 1px 0; } .theNote{ background-color:white; } } The Scientific Method GOAL : to explain the mechanisms of the universe -based on observations & experiments -in response to questions & hypotheses -physical evidence & explanations of events/phenomena OBSERVATIONS---QUESTIONS---HYPOTHESIS---support?---THEORY---support?---SCIENTIFIC MODEL First Numbers -found on baboon bones -used with similarity to our Roman Numeral system -Lebombo Bone -29 nicks -located on a baboon's fibula -found in Border Cave in the Lebombo Mountains -35,000 years old (found in 1973) First Writings Mesopotamia -3000 BC to 400 BC -used symbols to keep track of knowledge & findings -introduction of cuneiform writing -"Sumerian Script" -language was pictographic -written on clay tablets Egypt - Hieroglyphs -date back to 3200 BC -over 2,000 signs - ideograms : symbol represented a common object in Ancient Egypt -ex: ~~~ = river -evolved towards rebus : phonographic; image sounds like the word you want to say -ex: picture of an eye = /aI/ -also had a number system, similar to our Roman numerals -had a supplemental alphabet for words without a sign Rosetta Stone -dates back to 200BC -contained 3 translations of the same text: -Hieroglyphs -Demotic -Greek -languages officially deciphered by Jean-Francois Champollion Egyptians - pillar = RELIGION , not science -used science and advanced technologies to benefit their survival -ex: irrigation & medicine -religion was able to explain natural phenomena -studied astronomy in order to understand when the rainy season was -established the " solar year ": -developed after extensively studying astronomy -12 months, 3 weeks (with 10 days/week) Greeks -1100 BC - 146 BC -found a large amount of scientific knowledge Transformism -Democritis, "Father of Science" -first came water covering the Earth, then came the fish, then adaptation occurred -an order of events -matter -atoms constitutes matter and matter constitutes everything in the world Fossils -animal bones were found in clay and mud - Xenophanes of Colophon (570 - 478 BC) -concluded from examining fossils that water must have covered the entire Earth's surface Basis of Biology -comparative morphology between animals -a lot of the techniques are still used today -used to link species using observations and the scientific method -systematics -embryonic studies (for anatomy) -spontaneous generation -stars made of matter, Earth is round - Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) made a lot of these observations The Long Night -200 BC - 1450 AD (Greek-Roman-Middle Ages) -churches were in charge of writing books at the monasteries -science was under the control of religion - 117 BC : Roman Empire -concerned with technologies that will advance their empire - 395 AD : Roman Empire Splits -Barbarians & Byzantine Empires form -Byzantine Empire keeps the knowledge - 600 AD : Arab War Arab War - 600 AD : Islam reaches the Mediterranean Sea and contacts the Byzantine Empire for their scientific knowledge -led to discoveries of libraries and the works of Aristotle and other Greek academics -Islam exposes and preserves the knowledge -"Islamic Caliphate" -followed by the Ottoman Empire -touches the Mediterranean Sea as early as 600 BC The Scientific Revolution -aka: The Enlightenment -includes the Renaissance -1450-1600s (14th-17th centuries) - Gutenberg - 1450 AD : created the moving printing press -changed how knowledge was distributed -now able to distribute to the masses -culture and knowledge begins to leave the churches -transferred via books -Columbus & Magellan -both explorers that led to the discovery that Earth was round -this meant that all prior theories relating to all facets of knowledge are questionable -Copernicus & Galileo - Heliocentric solar system -plants revolve around SUN, not Earth -already presented by Aristarchus of Samos -Leonardo Da Vinci -had ideas of geology -said mountains didn't always exist -some lands were at one time submerged by water -worked with fossils -believed fossils were witnesses of past environments - Agricola (Bauer) -1494-1555 -"Father of Mineralogy" -fossils: everything coming from the ground - Gessner -1516-1565 -"Father of Zoology" - Steno -1672-1733 -"Father of Stratigraphy" -disproved the Earth being only 6000 years old -layers of rock represented time -despite hypotheses, had no concept of evolution/Static World The Breakthrough -van Leeuwenhoek -1632-1723 -developed the first microscope -"Father of Microbiology" -von Linne -1707-1778 -classification of organisms -8500 vegetation species -4200 animal species -his definition of species : a community of individuals that are able to reproduce -able to think of what species/animal came first, who is more simple, more complex, etc. Birth of Modern Geology -James Hutton -1726-1797 -"Father of Modern Geology" -Scottish -invented the notion of " deep time ", or geologic time -many, many years of formation of the Earth -the geologic timescale is very vast due to the age of Earth -said we need millions of years to form rocks -evidence found on an island in Scotland & the juxtaposition of rock formations -theory of plutonism & uniformitarianism - Plutonism -the geologic theory that rocks that formed on Earth were formed from volcanic activity -gradual process of weathering and erosion -eroded particles deposited into the sea bed, reforming into sedimentary rocks by heat and pressure, then resurfacing - Uniformitarianism **an important unifying concept in geology** -"the present is the key to the past" -important in understanding modern geology -slow growth of the Earth -landscape develops over long periods of time through slow geologic processes -says that laws that apply to Earth have always been around in the universe and have always applied to the universe -"uniformitarianism" was coined by William Whewell, who agreed with the concept -Charles Lyell -1797-1875 -agreed with uniformitarianism -developed principles of geology -proved that Hutton was right about uniformitarianism -presented geologic evidence for the theory in 1830-1833, from England, France, & Spain -against catastrophism, agreed with gradualism Fixism v. Transformism Fixism -catastrophism -succession of catastrophes with no evolution -proponent: Cuiver -his evidence: -vertebrate paleontology -comparative anatomy -extinction evidence in fossils -creating then destruction observed via fossils (no evidence of evolution) Transformism -inheritance of acquired traits with an intrinsic tendency toward perfection -proponent: Jean Baptiste Lamarck -also believed in uniformitarianism -his evidence: -spontaneous generation -intrinsic force ("complexifying") -extrinsic force ("adaptive") -giraffe example: -growth of long necks -extrinsic force = high leaves; must adapt to reach the higher leaves -intrinsic force = perfection of obtaining leaves -finality of transformism is an intrinsic tendency to perfection Darwin -"On the Origin of Species by Natural Selection" -observations of finches -written after 30 years of world exploration -organisms change over time (new & old species exist) -transformation is very gradual and practically imperceptible -inheritance of acquired characteristics -all have a common ancestor -NO hierarchy or spontaneous generation -Natural Selection -"the fittest, not the most able, survive" -the one most adaptable to change -species present a large amount of genetic variation -this variability is sorted out by a selection process -there is an overproduction of offspring, with some surviving and some dying -offspring experience a struggle for existence -differential survival & reproduction occurs ("strategy" of the species) Models of Radiation -2 models of radiation used to explain species 1. Adam & Eve Radiation -increasing diversity -should see a lot of variation between and within species - phyletic gradualism -Darwin's view on species 2. Espalier Tree Radiation -rapid growth of species, then nothing for a long time - punctuated equilibrium -missing graduality -Gould & Eldregde, 1972 (punctuated equilibrium) Phyletic Gradualism -microevolution -transformism -results in an "Adam & Eve" radiation pattern Punctuated Equilibrium -macroevolution -catastrophism -results in Espalier Tree Punctuated Gradualism -mixes microevolution & macroevolution