Midterm 1

Sociological Imagination

- Mills

- being able to see a personal trouble as a greater issue

Structural-Functional Approach

- Theorists: Comte, Durkheim, Parsons

- theory that sees society as a complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability

ex) we go to college to get an education so we can help society

Social-Conflict Approach

- Theorists: Marx, DuBois

- theory that sees society as an area of inequality that generates conflict and change

ex) sports people play reflect their social standing, women cater to men at sporting events

Symbolic-Interaction Approach

- Theorists: Weber, Goffman, Mead

- theory that sees society as the product of the everyday interactions of individuals

ex) we go to college because it is a social norm

Social Conflict Theory

- the struggle between segments of society over valued resources

- Marx

ex) to keep profits high-->low wages BUT workers want higher wages --> social conflict

Capitalists/Bourgeoisie and Proletarians

- Capitalists/Bourgeoisie- people who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits, paid proletarians

- Proletarians- people who sell their labor for wages, worked for capitalists

False Consciousness

-explaining social problems as the shortcomings of individuals rather than as flaws of society (not knowing individual problems relate to sociological issues)

Class Conflict

conflict between entire classes over distribution of a society's wealth and power

Class Consciousness

worker's recognition of themselves as a class unified in opposition to capitalists and ultimately to capitalism itself (realizing they aren't alone)

Alienation (Marx)

the experience of isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness

ex) Capitalists saw Proletarians as a source of labor and nothing else

Basic Argument of Communist Manifesto

- Individual Proletarians wanted higher wages, but didn't think everyone did (false consciousness)-->communicated and created unions-->formed class consciousness-->Communist Revolution (uprising)-->equality for all and abolition of private property

Tradition vs. Rationality

- Tradition- values and beliefs passed from generation to generation (guided by past)

- Rationality- a way of thinking that emphasizes calculation of most efficient way to accomplish task (guided by present and future consequences of their choices)

Rationalization of Society

the historical change from tradition to rationality as the main type of human thought

ex) willingness to adopt latest technology

Basic Argument of the Protestant Ethic

- people are "predestined" (Calvinism)

- work ethic- if successful-->chosen ones by God, if unsuccessful--> not chosen, their fate

- leads to the spirit of Capitalism

- Criticism: ignores inequality

Characteristics of Bureaucracy (6)

1. Specialization

2. Hierarchy of Positions

3. Rules and Regulations

4. Technical Competence

5. Impersonality

6. Formal, written communications

Specialization

people have specialized jobs (rational strategy to meet human needs efficiently)

Hierarchy of Positions

few at the top, many at the bottom (pyramid)

Rules and Regulations

- controlling by rules allows decisions made at high levels to be executed consistently by all lower levels

- leads to predictable operations

Technical Competence

- judge people according to what they are (education, skills, abilities)

- hiring is done according to set standards and performance is monitored

Impersonality

- puts rules ahead of personal whim so that both clients and workers are treated equally

Formal, Written Communications

no casual face-to-face talk, reliance on formal, written memos and reports in vast files

Problems with Ritualism

-Ritualism- a focus on rules and regulations to the point of undermining organization's goals

- Problem: get in the way of accomplishing goal

ex) FEMA forced firefighters to go through training before rescuing people, which gave them less time to help

Problems with Alienation

- might end up serving organization instead of organizations serving us

ex) going to a large class where professor only knows you as your ID #

Problems with Inertia

- tendency of organization to get too large and complicated, thus difficult to solve problems

Best way to Destroy Bureaucracy

destroy files

Anomie

a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals

Mechanical vs. Organic Solidarity

- Mechanical: social bonds based on common sentiments and shared moral values (preindustrial societies)

- Organic: social bonds based on specialization and interdependence (industrial societies)

Division of Labor

- the heart of Durkheim's society

- specialized economic activity (we depend more and more on people we trust less and less)

Positivist Sociology

- based on systematic observation of social behavior

- uses empirical evidence (quantitative data)

- researcher is a neutral observer

- Structural-Functional Approach

Variable

a concept whose value changes from case to case

ex) price, social class

Reliability and Validity

- Reliability: consistency in measurement

- Validity: actually measuring exactly what you intended to measure

Independent vs. Dependent Variables

- Independent: variable that causes the change

ex) Studying

- Dependent: variable that changes

ex) exam grade

Operationalization

specifying exactly what is to be measured before assigning a value

ex) specify how they plan to combine variables into one overall score

Spurious Correlation

- an apparent but false relationship between 2 or more variables that is caused by some other variable

- correlation DOES NOT equal causation

Objectivity/ Being Value-free

personal neutrality in conducting research

ex)researchers don't let own attitudes/beliefs influence results

Benefits and Limitations of Positivist Sociology

- Benefits: researcher can collect and provide important and reliable data, wide range of data

- Limitations: human behavior is too complex to predict, presence of researcher may affect behavior, never 100% value-free b/c researcher is part of social world being studied

Interpretive Sociology

- study of society that focuses on meanings people attach to their social world

- use qualitative data

- researcher is a participant

- Symbolic-interaction approach

Benefits and Limitations of Interpretive Sociology

- Benefits: better for a natural setting, researchers interact with people

- Limitations: not value-free

Critical Sociology

- study of society that focuses on the need for social change

- use of data to bring about change

- researcher is activist

- social conflict approach

Benefits and Limitations of Critical Sociology

- Benefits: change social world in direction of democracy and social justice

- Limitations: lacks objectivity and can't correct for its own biases

Experiment

a research method for investigating cause and effect under highly controlled conditions (tests a hypothesis)

Hypothesis

a statement of a possible relationship between 2 or more variables

Hawthorne Effect

a change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

Survey

- a research method in which subjects respond to a series of statements/questions on a questionnaire or in an interview

- good for studying what can't be observed directly (beliefs/ attitudes)

Participant Observation

a research method in which investigators systematically observe people while joining them in their routine activities (case study)

Pros and Cons of Using Existing Sources

- Pros: saves time and money, data is more extensive and more accurate

- Cons: may not exist in exact form needed

Inductive vs. Deductive Logical Thought

- Inductive: transforms specific observations into general theory

Deductive: transforms general theory into specific hypothesis suitable for testing

Theoretical Analysis of Culture

- Structural-Functional: considers values of the core of a culture, cultural values direct out lives, give meaning to what we do and bind people together

- Social- Conflict: stresses link between culture and inequality, cultural traits benefit members of society at the expense of others

Sociobiological Analysis of Culture and Criticism

- explores ways in which biology affects how we create culture

- double standards exist b/c biological differences lead women/men to favor distinctive reproductive strategies

- Criticism: culture affects biology and Nature vs. Nurture

ex) inter sex babies, everyone is brought up differently

Culture Shock

- personal disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life

- 2 ways: travelers experience it when encountering different way of life, travelers inflict it by acting in ways that offend locals

Elements of Culture (4)

1. Symbols

2. Language

3. Values and Beliefs

4. Norms

Symbols

- anything that carries a particular meaning recognized by people who share a culture

ex) a word, a raised fist

Language

a system of symbols that allow people to communicate with one another

Cultural Transmission

- the process by which one generation passes culture to the next

Sapir-Wharf Thesis

- people see and understand the world through the cultural lens of language

ex) bridge in German has a feminine the--> makes it seem elegant, beautiful, in Spanish it has a masculine the-->makes it strong, big, etc.

Values and Beliefs

- Values: culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good; serve as broad guidelines for social living

- Beliefs: specific thoughts/ideas that people hold to be true

Norms

rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members

Mores vs. Folkways

- Mores: norms that are widely observed and have moral significance (right vs. wrong)

ex) adults shouldn't engage in sexual relations with children

- Folkways: norms for routine/casual interaction (right vs. rude)

ex) appropriate greetings, proper dress

Subculture

- cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society's population

ex) traditional Korean Americans

Multiculturalism

a perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of US and promoting equal standings for all cultural traditions

Eurocentrism

the dominance of European (especially English) cultural patterns

Afrocentrism

emphasizing and promoting African cultural patterns

Counterculture

cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society

ex) youth- oriented counter-culture reject mainstream culture

Cultural Lag

the fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others, disrupting a cultural system

Ethnocentrism vs. Cultural Relativism

- Ethnocentrism: practice of judging another culture by standards of own culture

- Cultural Relativism: practice of judging a culture by its own standards

Deviance

the recognized violation of cultural norms (varies according to cultural norms)

Limitations of Structural-Functional Approach to Deviance

- assumes one over-arching moral standard

- doesn't account for corporate crime and crimes that go unpunished b/c of who commits them

- assumes that all deviance will be labeled as such

Durkheim's Functions of Deviance (4)

1. affirms cultural values and norms

2. clarifies moral boundaries

3. brings people together

4. encourages social change

Merton's Strain Theory

type of deviance engages in depends on what society provides as means to achieve goal

Conformity: pursuing goal through approved means

Innovation: using unconventional means to achieve goal

Ritualism: inability to reach goal

Retreatism: rejecting goal and conventional means

Rebellion: reject success and conventional means of achieving it

Limitations of Symbolic-Interaction Approach of Deviance

- ignores fact that some types of behavior are condemned everywhere

- researchers don't show whether deviant labeling produces or discourages deviance

- not everyone resists being labeled deviant

Labeling Theory

the idea that deviance and conformity result not as much from what people do as from how others respond to those actions

Medicalization of Deviance

the transformation of moral and legal deviance into a medical condition

ex) Alcoholics, drug addicts

Differential Association Theory

a person's tendency toward conformity/deviance depends on the amount of contact with others who encourage or reject conventional behavior

ex) my friends don't really drink, there for I don't think it's necessary to drink

Hirschi's Control Theory (4)

- imagining consequences of deviance might discourage subject to do so

Less likely if:

1. Attachment: more social ties

2. Opportunity: more opportunities

3. Involvement: have roles in society

4. Belief: strong belief in morality

Limitations of Social-Conflict Approach to Deviance

- laws don't just protect the rich

- deviance is universal

Who is deviant in Capitalist Society?

- people who interfere with the operation of capitalism

- people who threaten property of others, can't/won't work, resist authority, directly challenge capitalists status quo

White-Collar Crime

Crime committed by people of high social position in the course of their occupations

ex) Lindsey Lohan using her status so she doesn't go to jail

Corporate Crime

the illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf

ex)knowingly selling faulty/dangerous products

Four Reasons for Punishment

1. Retribution

2. Deterrence

3. Rehabilitation

4. Social Protection

Retribution

an act of moral vengeance by which society makes the offender suffer as much as as the suffering

Deterrence

the attempt to discourage criminality through the use of punishment

Rehabilitation

a program for reforming the offender to prevent later offenses

Societal Protection

rendering an offender incapable of further offenses temporarily through imprisonment or permanently by execution (to protect society from crime)

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature: the way people are born

Nurture: the way people are brought up, their surroundings

Self

the part of an individual's personality composed of self-awareness and self-image (develops with social experience, not present at birth)

Development of the Self

-the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of others (imitate, play, game)

Looking-Glass Self

a self-image based on how we think others see us

ex)raising hand in class with how others perceive me in mind

I and Me

- self operates as a subject (being active and spontaneous-I)

- self works as an object (the way we imagine others see us-Me)

Significant Others vs. Generalized Other

Significant: people who have special importance for socialization

Generalized: widespread cultural norms and values we use as reference in evaluating ourselves

Erik Erikson's Stages of Development

1. Infancy- trust vs. mistrust

2. Toddler hood- autonomy vs. doubt and shame

3. Preschool- initiative vs. guilt

4. Preadolescence- industriousness vs. inferiority

5. Adolescence- identity vs. confusion

6. Young adulthood- intimacy vs. isolation

7. Middle adulthood- making a difference vs. self-absorption

8. Old age- integrity vs. despair

Agents of Socialization (4)

1. Family

2. Peer Group

3. School

4. Media

Total Institution

- setting in which people are isolated from rest o society and manipulated by admin. staff

- life is controlled and supervised

- formal rules dictate daily routines

Resocialization

-radically changing inmate's personality by carefully controlling the environment

Status and Status Set

Status: a social position that a person holds

ex)teaching, daughter

Status set: all statuses a person holds at a given time

Ascribed vs. Achieved Status

Ascribed: a social position a person receives at birth or takes on involuntarily later in life

ex)daughter, Chinese, teenager

Achieved: a social position a person takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort

ex)honors student, nurse

Master Status

a status that has special importance, often shaping a person's entire life

ex) job, gender, race

Role and Role Set

- Role: behavior expected of someone who holds a particular status

- Role Set: a # of roles attached to a single status

ex)professors interacts with students (teacher's role) and with other academics (colleague role)

Role Conflict

conflict among roles connected to two or more statuses (response is to decide that something has to go

Role Strain

tension among the roles connected to a single status

ex)prof may enjoy being friendly with students but must maintain personal distance needed to evaluate students fairly

Role Exit

- the process by which people disengage from important social roles

- process begins when people start to doubt their ability to continue role, then decide to pursue new life

Social Construction of Reality

process by which people creatively shape reality through social interaction

Thomas Theorem

situations that are defined as real are real in their consequences

ex) the 2 men who walked out of the store with the unpaid canoe later were charged with stealing

Presentation of Self

a person's efforts to create specific impression in the minds of others

Definition of the Situation

reality has to be defined by those who participate in it, we express info and engage in defensive and protective practices

Facework

the actions taken by a person to make whatever she is doing consistent with face

Face

the positive social value a person effectively claims for herself through impression management and definition of the situation

To have, be in, or maintain face

when the image presented is internally consistent, supported by judgement and evidence conveyed by others, and is confirmed by evidence conveyed through impersonal agencies in the situation

In wrong face

the state in which info in the interaction can't be integrated into the impression that a person is attempting to sustain

ex) fighting to get a player who says they are good but in reality isn't

Out of Face

when a person participates in contact with others without being ready to give the impression they are expected to give

ex) at weddings, sometimes maid of honors give speeches that aren't that great

Poise

the capacity to suppress and conceal any tendency to become shamefaced during encounters with others

ex) not allowing embarrassment

Avoidance Process

change conversation topic, employ deceptions and courtesies in conversation, ignore offending act

Corrective Process and Interchange

- acknowledgement of "incident"

- interchange: sequence of acts set in motion by an acknowledged threat to face, which terminates in re-establishment of ritual equilibrium

ex)walking in on someone in the bathroom and later apologizing

Making points/ Aggressive Face-work

- introducing favorable info about oneself and unfavorable info of others in a way that the only reply others will think of is to terminate interchange with meager excuse or face-saving laugh

ex) boss making fun of you to try to cover his mistakes

Tact

the person saves her own face and protects the face of others (social etiquette)

Reciprocal Self-Denial

voluntary depreciating of self while indulging or complimenting others to help everyone save face

Primary vs. Secondary Groups

Primary: small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships

ex) family, friends

Secondary: large, impersonal social groups whose members pursue a specific goal or activity

ex) work, class

Instrumental vs. Expressive Leadership

Instrumental: group leadership that focuses on completion of tasks

Expressive: group leadership that focuses on the group's well-being

Conformity: Ash and Milgram Experiments

Ash: told class to choose wrong option while 1 student was out, to see if the student would conform-->1/3 of subjects chose to conform

Milgram: shock subject if they answered question wrong-->people follow lead of authoritative people and groups or ordinary people

Groupthink

the tendency of group members to conform, resulting in a narrow view of some issue

Reference Group

a social group that serves as a point of reference in making evaluations and decisions

ex)man imagines family's response to a woman he is dating (using his family as a reference group

In-Group vs. Out-Group

In-group: a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty (unique individuals)

ex) friends

Out-group: a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition of opposition (the same-->discrimination)

ex) colleagues

Dyad vs. Triad

Dyad: a social group with 2 members (interaction is intense, unstable)

Triad: a social group with 3 members (more stable, more people-->less intense personal interaction

Network

a web of weak social ties (tend to be with the same type of people

Formal Organizations (def and 3 types)

-large secondary groups organized to achieve their goals efficiently

1. Utilitarian

2. Normative

3. Coercive

Utilitarian vs. Normative vs. Coercive Organizations

U: pays people for their efforts

ex) businesses

N: people join to pursue goals they think are morally worthwhile

ex) Red Cross, Tzu Chi

C: membership is involuntary

ex) prison

Oligarchy

the rule of many by a few (pyramid)

Scientific Management (def and 3 steps)

- application of scientific principles to operation of business/large organizations

1. Identify all operations involved+measure time needed

2. Analyze data and make workers more efficient

3. Provide guidance and incentives for works to do jobs quicker

Challenges to Gender and Race

-organizations excluded women and minorities, especially from positions of power

- makes them feel like out-groups

Challenges to Japanese Work Organization

- they reflected the nation's strong collective spirit, valued cooperation

Challenges to Changing Nature of Work

- less day-to-day supervision

- more creative contributions

- pyramid shape hierarchy

- generates new ideas and adapts quickly

Characteristics of "McDonaldization" of Society (4 and cons)

1. Uniformity- nothing is left to change, all scripted

2. Efficiently- do things quickly

3. Predictability- set formulas and procedures

4. Control- use of nonhuman technology to control workers

Midterm 1

Sociology So 101 with Warnock at Skidmore College

About this deck

About StudyBlue

Sign up (free) to study this.

About this deck

About StudyBlue