Midterm1: Chp. 1,2,3,4,11

Human Biology with Angeles at Saratoga High School

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By: megan yen
Created: 2011-01-19
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Characteristics shared by living organisms

-organized from atom-biosphere

-use materials and energy from environment

-reproduce offspring

-growth/development

-maintain homeostasis

-respond to internal/external stimuli

-evolutionary history

Homeostasis

-maintain relatively constant internal environment

Scientific method

-observation, hypothesis, experiment/observations, conclusion, scientific theory

Matter

anything that has weight and takes up space

Elements

basic building blocks of matter that can't be broken down by chemical means

Atoms

smallest units of an element that retain element's physical and chemical properties; bond to form molecules

-atomic mass=protons + neutrons

-atomic number = protons

Isotopes/Radioactive Isotopes

atoms that have same # protons, different # neutrons

-radioactive isotopes: date old objects, x-rays, killing cancer cells

Ionic bonds

-atoms lose/gain electrons

-results in a stable outer shell

-occurs between ions

Covalent bonds

-atoms share electrons

-results in stable outer shell

Hydrogen bonds

-between hydrogen in a covalent bond and a negatively charged atom

-relatively weak

-holds water molecules together

Acids

-substances that dissociate and release hydrogen atoms

-below 7 on pH scale

Bases

-substances that take up H+ atoms or release hydroxylions

-above 7 on pH scale

pH scale

-measure of hydrogen ion concentration

-0-14

Buffers

-neutralize strong bases/acids

Organic molecules in living organisms

-carbohydrates

-lipids

-proteins

-nucleic acids

Carbohydrates

-made of monosaccharides (1 carbon ring)

-complex carbs: polysaccharides

-glycogen: storage form in animals

-starch: storage form in plants

Lipids

-molecules that don't dissolve in water

-found in cell membranes

-found as fats/oils, phospholipids, and steroids (4 fused carbon rings)

Structure of fats/oils

-glycerol molecule and 3 fatty acid tails (triglyceride)

Proteins

-made of amino acids

-important for diff. functions (hormones, enzymes, antibodies, transport)

-can denature, change in shape

4 levels of protein organization

1. Primary: linear order of amino acids

2. Secondary: folding into pleated sheets and helices (alpha helix)

3. Tertiary: 3D shape of entire protein in space

4. Quaternary: combination of 2 or more polypeptides

Nucleic acids

-made of nucleotides (3 parts: phosphate, sugar, nitrogen-containing base)

-make proteins, store genetic material

-includes RNA and DNA

Cell Theory

-cell is basic unit of life

-all living things made up of cells

-new cells arise from preexisting cells

Compound light microscope

-uses light beams to view images

-can view live specimens

-lower magnification

Transmission electron microscope

-2D image

-uses electrons to view internal structure

-high magnification, no live specimen

Scanning electron microscope

-3D image

-uses electrons to view surface structures

-high magnification, no live specimen

Prokaryotic/Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotic: no nucleus

Eukaryotic: have nucleus (with DNA), many membrane-bound organelles

In common: plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA

Plama membrane

-selectively permeable

-phospholipid bilayer

-embedded with proteins

-cholesterol for support

-carbohydrates on proteins and lipids

Diffusion

random movement of molecules from high concentration to low concentration

Osmosis

diffusion of water molecules

Facilitated diffusion

transport of molecules through diffusion using protein carrier

Active transport

movement of molecules from lower to higher concentration using ATP as energy and protein carrier

Tonicity (Hypertonic, Hypotonic, Isotonic)

Hypertonic: solutions have more solute than inside of cell; lead to lysis (bursting)

Hypotonic: solutions have less solute than inside of cell; lead to crenation (shriveling)

Isotonic: solutions have equal amounts of solute inside and outside cell

Endocytosis/Exocytosis

Endocytosis: transports molecules or cells into cells via invagination fo the plasma membrane to form a vesicle

Exocytosis: transports molecules outside cell via fusion of a vesicle with plasma membrane

Structures involved in protein production

-nucleus
-ribosomes
-endomembrane system

Structure and function of nucleus

-bound by nuclear envelope
-houses DNA and chromatin
-has nucleoplasm (like cytoplasm)
-nucleolus has ribosomal RNA

Structure and function of ribosomes

-made of RNA and protein
-bound to endoplasmic reticulum/free floating in cell
-site of protein synthesis

Endomembrane system

-series of membranes in which molecule are transported in the cell
-consists of endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles

Endoplasmic reticulum

Rough: studded with ribosomes to make proteins
Smooth: lacks ribosomes but aids in making carbs and lipids

Golgi apparatus

-package and deliver protein and lipids from ER

Lysosomes

-membranous vesicles made by Golgi apparatus that contain digestive enzymesq

Cytoskeleton

-series of proteins that maintain cell shape and anchors/moves organelles in cell
-made of 3 fibers: large microtubules, thin actin filaments, and intermediate filaments

Cilia and Flagella

-made of microtubules
-used in movement

Mitochondria

-highly folded organelle in eukaryotic cells
-produces energy in form of ATP

Enzymes

-specific to what they work on
-recycled in reactions
-most are proteins
-have active sites where a substrate binds

Cellular respiration

-production of ATP
-3 parts: glycolysis, citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle), electron transport chain

Fermentation

-cell makes ATP without oxygen
-occurs in cytoplasm
-involves glycolysis
-makes 2 ATP and lactate
-important for burst of energy for short time

Tissue/ 4 major tissue types

-collection of cells of same type that perform a common function
-4 major tissue types: connective, muscular, nervous, epithelial

Connective Tissue/ 3 types

-binds and supports parts of body
-3 components: specialized cells, ground substance, protein fibers
-3 types of connective tissue: fibrous, supportive (cartilage and bone), fluid (blood and lymph)

Fibrous connective tissue

-2 types: dense or loose
-contain fibroblast cells with matrix of collagen and elastic fibers
-adipose tissue (special loose fibrous tissue where fat is stored)

Supportive connective tissue: Cartilage/ 3 types

-cells in chambers called lacunae
-3 types:
1. hyaline: fine collagen fibers (nose, ends of long bones)
2. elastic: more elastic fibers (outer ear)
3. fibrocartilage: stong collagen fibers (disks between vertebrae)

Supportive connective tissue: bone/ 2 types

-cells in chambers called lacunae
-2 types:
1. compact: made of repeating circular units (osteons) (location: shafts of long boness)
2. spongy: open, latticework with irregular spaces (location:l ends of long bones)

Fluid connective tissue: blood/ 3 elements

-made of fluid matrix called plasma
-3 formed elements:
1. red blood cells: carry oxygen
2. white blood cells: fight infection
3. platelets: pieces of cells that clot blood

Fluid connective tissue: lymph

-matrix is fluid called lymph
-white blood cells congregate in this tissue

Muscle Tissue/ 3 types

-allows for movement
-made of actin and myosin (muscle fibers/cells and protein fibers)
-3 types: skeletal, smooth, cardiac

Muscle tissue: skeletal

-striated fibers
-attached to bone for movement
-voluntary movement

Muscle tissue: smooth

-spindle shaped cell; no striations
-in walls of hollow organs and vessels
-involuntary movement

Muscle tissue: cardiac

-branched cells; striations with darker striations between cells (intercalated disks)
-heart
-involuntary movement

Nervous Tissue

-allows for communication btwn cells
-2 major cell types:
1. neurons: made of dendrites and an axon (carry info toward cell body)
2. neuroglia

Epithelial tissue

-# of cell layers: simple (1 layer), stratified (more than 1), pseudostatified (appears to have layers, but only 1 layer)
-shape of cell: cuboidal, columnar, squamous (flattened)

Junctions

-connect cells within a tissue
-tight junctions: proteins join and form impermeable barrier btwn plasma membranes in zipper-like fashion
-adhesion junctions: cytoskeletal fibers join btwn cells and have flexibility
-gap junctions: fusion of adjacent plasma membranes with small channels that allow small molecules to diffuse

Integumentary system

-skin and accessory organs (hair, nails, glands)
-skin has 2 regions: epidermis and dermis
-under skin: subcutaneous layer btwn dermis and internal structures where fat is stored
-important for maintaining homeostasis
-synthesizes chemicals such as melanin and vitamin D

Epidermis

-thin, outermost layer of skin
-cells in uppermost part are dead, filled with keratin; act as waterproof barrier
-Langerhans cells (white blood cell that helps fight pathogens)
-Melanocytes (produce melanin than give skin color and protection for UV light)

Dermis

-thick, inner layer of skin
-made of dense fibrous connective tissue
-contains blood vessels, many sensory receptors and glands

Body cavities

-spaces between organs

Body membranes that line cavities

-mucous membranes (line digestive, respiratory, urinary, reproductive systems)
-serous membranes (line lungs, heart, abdominal cavity)
-synovial membranes (line cavities of freely movable joints)
-meninges (cover brain and spinal cord)

Negative feedback

-primary mechanism for maintaining homeostasis
-2 components: sensor, control center

Positive feedback

-mechanism for increasing change of internal environment in 1 direction
-can be harmful such as when fever is too high and continues to rise

Important cells in bone growth, remodeling, and repair

-osteoblasts: bone-forming cells
-osteocytes: mature bone cells that maintain bone structure
-osteoclasts: bone-absorbing cells
-chondroytes: cartilage-forming cells

Ossification

-formation of bone in 2 ways:
1. intramembranous ossification: btwn sheets of fibrous connective tissue; used in flat bones
2. endochondrial ossification: cartilage replaced by bone

Bone remodeling

-bone breaks; "remodel" bone!
-allows bones to respond to stress
-role in homeostasis: regulates calcium in blood through hormones (Parathyroid homone, calcitonin)

Steps in bone repair

-hemotoma (blood clot formed btwn broken bones)
-fibrocartilaginous callus (cartilage callus forms btwn broken bones)
-bony callus (cartilage callus turns to bone)
-remodeling (old bone tissue replaced by new bone tissue)

Axial Skeleton

-skull, hyroid bone (only bone that doesn't touch with another bone), vertebral column, rib cage

Appendicular skeleton

-pectoral girdle and upper limb (arm)
-pelvic girdle and lower limb (leg)

types of joints

-fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial (freely movable joints like knee and shoulder)

About this deck

By: megan yen
Created: 2011-01-19
Size: 74 flashcards
Views: 5

About StudyBlue

“Simply amazing. The flash cards are smooth, there are many different types of studying tools, and there is a great search engine. I praise you on the awesomeness.”
Dennis