My history final notes.doc

Zarathustra Time: Axial Age (c. 1700-500 BCE) Place: Western Asia and Persian Empire Source: The Gathas (Iranian dialect hymns) Significance: Created a new religion legendary religious teacher from HYPERLINK "http://www.livius.org/ba-bd/bactria/bactria.html" Bactria , founder of HYPERLINK "http://www.livius.org/ag-ai/ahuramazda/ahuramazda.html" Zoroastrianism . Zarathustra's life changed when the god HYPERLINK "http://www.livius.org/ag-ai/ahuramazda/ahuramazda.html" Ahuramazda granted him a vision ??Ahuramazda= god of this religion, the ?good lord?, one supreme deity, creator of this world o Was deemed the single source of good because with more there would be conflict ??He made Darius king with a mandate to bring good order. Darius and his successors were Zoroastrianisms ??Ahuramazda was threatened by Angra Mainyu ?the hostile spirit? who was backed by a host of demons ??Idea of dualistic universe?struggle between good and evil. Good will eventually prevail, after which the world will return to its pure state ??Humans are participants in this struggle, and individuals are rewarded or punished in the afterlife for their actions ??Held humans on high ethical standards and promised salvation ??Judaism, and thus Christianity indirectly may indirectly stem from this religion of the Ancient World o God, the Devil, Heaven and Hell, the Messiah and the End of Time are all legacies of this belief system Ahura Mazda Time: Axial Age Place: western Asia and Persian Empire Source: The Gathas Significance: Zoroastrianist belief that those who reject the evil spirits of Angra Mainyu were rewarded with external life with Ahura Mazda ??Idea of salvation for do gooders and good followers ? Angra Mainyu Time: Axial Age Place: western Asia and Persian Empire Source: The Gathas Signifance: This was the ?hostile spirit? of Zoroastrianism in the dualistic universe, backed by demons ??Explained the evil that existed in the world ??Only creative act was to create helpers/ agents ??Our choices as humans were a direct result of the cosmic conflict between AM and Ahuramazda Vishnu Time: 11th century CE Source: Statue of Vishnu rescuing Mother Earth found in eastern India Bhagavad-Gita (most renowned of all Indian sacred texts) Significance: one of the principal deities of Hinduism ??the ?preserver?, a benevolent deity who helps his devotees in times of need ??whenever demonic forces threaten the cosmic order, Vishnu appears on earth in a series of incarnations ??because many gods such as Vishnu existed, Hindus believed that all these gods are manifestations of a single divine force that pervades the universe Place: Northern India Upanishads Time: c. 700-500 BCE Source: The Upanishads Signficance: Source of Hinduism ??Means ?sitting down in front of a teacher? ??The text is written in dialogue form between teacher and pupil and is designed for those who want to continue their search for ultimate wisdom ??Most likely Brahmin authors ??Question the foundation of Vedic religion ??Underlying themes of the texts: o There is a Universal Soul- Brahmin o The inner most essence of a person (the spiritual self) is at one with Brahman o Therefore, humans are not outside Divine Reality but apart of it o Reincarnation o The law of karma- the fruits of ones actions Bhagavad-Gita Time: 11th century CE Source: Bhagavad-Gita Significance: Most renowned of all sacred Indian texts ??Episode that explains death means nothing in a universe which souls will be reborn again and again ??Offers an attractive resolution to the tension in Indian civilization between duty to one?s society versus one?s soul o It suggests that disciplined action (action taken without any regards to personal benefit) is a form of service to the gods and will be rewarded by release from this cycle of rebirths ??Underlying sense of unity exists in this text Place: India Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) Time: 563-483 BCE Source: First Sermon Significance: Sprititual leader (Buddha ?The enlightened one?) and founder of Buddhism ??(another great threat to the Vedic religion) ??Lived a princely life then gave it up for self-deprivation, which he practiced for 6 years. He then came to a ?Middle Path? of moderation ??Gained insight into the true nature of reality= the Four Truths: 1. life is suffering 2. suffereing arises from desire 3. solution lies in curbing desire 4. desire can be curbed if a person follows the ?Eightfold Path ??many followers took vows of poverty, celibacy, and nonviolence ??this religion focused on the individual ??did not reject gods, but denied their usefulness to a person seeking enlightenment?had to be done on their own by living in moderation to minimize desire and suffering and searching for spiritual truth through self-discipline and meditation ??ultimate reward= nirvana (?snuffing out the flame?)?a release from the cycle of reincarnation and achievement into a state of perpetual tranquility ??was often symbolized with footprints or feeding bowls or meditation trees to emphasize his state of nonexistence through nirvana Place: India Bodhi Tree Time: 563-483 BCE (Buddha?s lifetime) Source: India Significance: Buddha gained enlightenment under this tree, known as the enlightenment/ awakening tree ??symbol of high importance in Buddhist culture Spring & Autumn Period Time: First part of the Eastern Zhou Period (771-481 BCE) Place: China Source: Spring and Autumn Annals Significance: ??This period is name for the text Spring and Autumn Annals that provides historical record of events in this kingdom ??The states of this era were at odds with one another and used a wide variety of ways to protect themselves and pursue their interests including: o Assassinations and coups,o Conventional warfare,o Diplomatic initiatives ??Overall trend- gradual consolidation into a smaller number of larger and more powerful kingdoms Warring States Period Time: Second half of the Eastern Zhou era (481-221 BCE) Place: China Source: Warring States Period bronze figurine carved in the Shang era Significance: Time of accelerated rivalry and warfare between the states ??Eventually only 7 major states remained after larger states continually conquered smaller, less able states ??States sought security o Built walls to protect borders o Gathered largest possible armies o Experimented with new war technologies, military organizations, tactics so that it could produce the greatest revenues to subsidize its expanding military and political infrastructure ??Used self-defense and aimed to increase territories ??Conquered many more people that assimilated into Chinese culture ??Most innovative sate= Qin o Employed Legalists tactics- doing things for good of state not individual, employing whatever means necessary to ensure obedience Laozi (Lao Tzu) Time: 604-517 BCE Place: China Source: Classic of the Way of Virtue Significance: Originator of Daoism ??Taught harmony with nature, ?Way of Nature? ??Human beings in nature were innately good ??Complex societies and outside forces were bad ??Unlearn what you have learned ??The world is always changing, accept the world as they find it, avoid futile struggles, and deviate as little as possible from the path of nature Confucius (Kong Fuzi) Time: 551-479 BCE Place: China Source: The Analects, Book of Documents, Book of Changes, Spring and Autumn Annals Significance: Chinese philosopher that created a code of conduct for government officials ??Believed family was the fundamental component of society- ways in which family members regulated their conduct in the home would be relevant to them as citizens of the state ??Placed high importance on making society function smoothly at every level ??His teachings provided an ethical framework for conducting one?s life and understanding one?s place in the world ??This was not a religion although he urged respect for gods, religious traditions ??Essential goodness of all people and argued that if people were shown the right way by virtuous leaders, they would voluntarily do the right thing Qin Shi Huangdi Time: (r. 221-210 BCE) Place: China Source: Penal Laws Significance: unifier of China ??Put an end to Warring States Period ??Ruled through harsh methods ??Good warrior ??Legalistic policies- believed humans were inherently bad and need a powerful state to keep people from killing each other, if state is powerful and well run, people can be in order and will thank you ??Harmony of the state Poleis (Hellenic/Greek) Time: 800-480 BCE Archaic Period Place: Greece Source: The Acropolis Significance: ??These city-states emerged after the Dark Age (c.1150-800 BCE) in which Greeks had little contact outside of individual provinces, merchant trade eventually brought more contact to area ??Rapid population brought emergence of more city-states (polis means ?citystate?) with urban centers and surrounding rural areas (which had free members of the community) ando acropolis (hilltop ?top of city? area) o agora (?gathering place?)- government buildings and market places, would gather for political decisions and war time prep o Fortified walls surrounding ??specialization of labor ??Greek alphabet- first true alphabet o Used for economic reasons, preserving oral epics, literature, law codes, religious dedications, epitaphs on gravestones o Intellectual and artistic creations- theatrical drama, philosophical dialogues, courtroom oratory ??City-states were competitive with each other- fought often and developed in a new style of warfare ??Invention of coins- allowed more rapid exchanges, efficient record-keeping, storage of wealth ??Political instability Battle of Thermopylae (Persian Wars) Time: 480 BCE Place: Greece Source: Significance: ??(Persian wars- Persia had extended their power west, Greek saw this as huge threat. Persians tried to offers gifts to peacefully take over Greek land, and Greeks rejected their offers every time) ??Persian attack on Greece ??300 Spartans (Greek/ Hellenic League) fought Persians to allow their fellows to escape ??Persians then seized Athens, but went into nearby straights where they were defeated ??(also solidified that Spartans should be the great warriors of the Greeks) Delian League Time: 477 BCE Place: Sparta (Greece) Source: Significance: ended Persian threat to Greek mainland ??Voluntary alliance of Greek states eager to prosecute the war against Persia ??In less than 20 years, League forces led by Athenian generals cleared the waters of the Eastern Mediterranean from all Persians and freed all Greek communities (except distance Cyprus) Herodotus? Histories Time: c.485-425 BCE Place: Greece Source: Histories Significance: Known as the ?father of history? ??1st true historian because he was seeking the cause of historical events between the Greeks and the Persians (not solely investigative research defined by the term historia) ??Questioned why the Greeks and Persians fought each other and why the Greeks won ??His answer- hubris= excessive pride o This was why an empire fell ??Recognized difference between freedom and slavery ??Greeks won against all the means because of the different types of freedom they possessed which allowed them to beat a superior and larger group o Personal freedom o Political freedom o Intellectual freedom ??One of the first people to make the distinction between east and west Parthenon Time: Place: Athens Source: (remains) Significance: ??Temple to Athena located on the Acropolis in Athens ??Pericles was the leader in charge during the construction and gained popularity by redistributing the profits gained ??Theme: human ability to tame/control nature ??Unity always wins over chaos ??Harmonic analysis of Parthenon- used mathematical principle to build, harmony is mathematic o One?s mind is put into balance by this harmonic representation whether they realize it or not o Used golden ratio= Phi Thucydides? Peloponnesian War Time: 460-395 BCE Place: Athens Source: History of the Peloponnesian Way Significance: historian that studied the Peloponnesian War, was dubbed the ?father of scientific history? for his strict standards of evidence-gathering analysis in terms of casue and effect (without referring to intervention from the gods) ??Athenian general and historian who was released after a bad decision with Athenian government o Argues that Athenians (or any government council can make a bad decision) ??Large groups can?t think as well as individuals Sophocles Time: 496- 406 BCE Place: Greece Source: his play writes- Oedipus, Antigone Significance: ??Greek play writer of many dramatic tragedies o Antigone- a defiant woman who buries her brother despite the king?s orders o Oedipus- unknowingly marries his mother after killing his father ??Talked about the limitations of human reason, and government rules vs. divine rules ??Lived during Persian Wars Heraclitus Time: c. 535-475 BCE Place: Greece Source: Significance: ??Philosopher on metaphysical reality ??Taught CHANGE was the only thing that was constant, central to the universe ??Eris- Oppositional Process ??Dike- Apparent Stability ??Being, Logos- eternal Plato Time: c. 428-347 BCE Place: Greece Source: Significance: ??Socrates?s student, understood things through reason or innate knowledge not observation ??Founded the Academy for young men in Athens which was the first institution of higher learning in the Western world ??Wrote philosophical dialogues, philosopher, mathematician o Dialogues were in question and answer form to gain understanding of justice, excellence, and wisdom ??Helped lay the foundation for natural philosophy, science, and western philosophy ??His student was Aristotle Zhou Dynasty Time: 1045-221 BCE Place: China Source: Book of Documents, Book of Songs Significance: longest living and most revered dynasty in all of Chinese dynasties ??Overthrew Shang dynasty ??Created Mandate of Heaven theory to justify their rule ??Early period- time of prosperity and benevolent rule ??Later period- centralized control broke down, and warfare among many small states became frequent ??Western Zhou- fairly strong but decentralized monarchy that presided over fifty or more subordinate states. Over time power slipped from kings to local lords ??Eastern- loose formation of states each with their own military and political control, even more decentralized that Western Z Spring & Autumn Period Time: First part of the Eastern Zhou Period (771-481 BCE) Place: China Source: Spring and Autumn Annals Significance: ??This period is name for the text Spring and Autumn Annals that provides historical record of events in this kingdom ??The states of this era were at odds with one another and used a wide variety of ways to protect themselves and pursue their interests including: o Assassinations and coups o Conventional warfare o Diplomatic initiatives ??Overall trend- gradual consolidation into a smaller number of larger and more powerful kingdoms Warring States Period Time: Second half of the Eastern Zhou era (481-221 BCE) Place: China Source: Warring States Period bronze figurine carved in the Shang era Significance: Time of accelerated rivalry and warfare between the states ??Eventually only 7 major states remained after larger states continually conquered smaller, less able states ??States sought security o Built walls to protect borders o Gathered largest possible armies o Experimented with new war technologies, military organizations, tactics so that it could produce the greatest revenues to subsidize its expanding military and political infrastructure ??Used self-defense and aimed to increase territories ??Conquered many more people that assimilated into Chinese culture ??Most innovative sate= Qin o Employed Legalists tactics- doing things for good of state not individual, employing whatever means necessary to ensure obedience Laozi (Lao Tzu) Time: 604-517 BCE Place: China Source: Classic of the Way of Virtue Significance: Originator of Daoism ??Taught harmony with nature, ?Way of Nature? ??Human beings in nature were innately good ??Complex societies and outside forces were bad ??Unlearn what you have learned ??The world is always changing, accept the world as they find it, avoid futile struggles, and deviate as little as possible from the path of nature Confucius (Kong Fuzi) Time: 551-479 BCE Place: China Source: The Analects, Book of Documents, Book of Changes, Spring and Autumn Annals Significance: Chinese philosopher that created a code of conduct for government officials ??Believed family was the fundamental component of society- ways in which family members regulated their conduct in the home would be relevant to them as citizens of the state ??Placed high importance on making society function smoothly at every level ??His teachings provided an ethical framework for conducting one?s life and understanding one?s place in the world ??This was not a religion although he urged respect for gods, religious traditions ??Essential goodness of all people and argued that if people were shown the right way by virtuous leaders, they would voluntarily do the right thing Qin Shi Huangdi Time: (r. 221-210 BCE) Place: China Source: Penal Laws Significance: unifier of China ??Put an end to Warring States Period ??Ruled through harsh methods ??Good warrior ??Legalistic policies- believed humans were inherently bad and need a powerful state to keep people from killing each other, if state is powerful and well run, people can be in order and will thank you ??Harmony of the state Achaemenid Dynasty Time: 550 + (486??) BCE Place: Persia Source: Cyrus Cylinder Significance: Persian rulers ??Cyrus the Great- founder of the A Dynasty, expanded boundaries, employed Persians and Medes in his administration and respected the institutions and beliefs of subject peoples?considered to have written one of the first human rights documents letting people worship who they want ??Darius I- Expanded Persian control east and west, had broad ideas for humanity o Zorozastrianism- acknowledged this as official government religion and rewarded supports with position o Government- created administrative districts called Satrapies/ Satrapsidea to get greater cooperation by appointing local leaders o Had ?spies? sent into Satraps unannounced to review and make judicial decisions about them and report back to Darius o Built Persepolis Persepolis Time: 500 BCE Place: Persia Source: remains Significance ??Complex of palaces, reception halls, and treasury buildings ??Used for ceremonies of special importance to the Persian king and people such as coronations, royal weddings, funerals, and the New Year?s festival ??Built by Darius I and his son Xerxes ??Wanted an orderly world based on offering tributes to people (all different peoples were represented in artwork on walls, statues) ??Darius? goal was to bring people together Satrapies Time: Place: Source: Significance: ??Government administrative districts created under Darius I?s rule ??Appointed local leaders to get greater cooperation ??Satrap- governor of one of these provinces, often a relative of the king o Responsible for protecting province and for forwarding tribute to central administration ???spies? sent from central administration were sent to check on officials and report back or make any judicial decisions necessary while being there Alexander the Great Time: 356-323 BCE Place: Greece Source: coins Significance: ??Conquered the Persian Empire, downfall of Achaemenid Persian Empire ??created 1st effort of using cult of personality ??Spread Greek culture across other areas ??Strategically founded many Greek-style cities in conquered areas ??Had coins produced with his name on them ??Placed some obedient Persian leaders in control and pushed for Greek officials to marry Persian women, adopted many Persian elements of dress and court ceremonies Alexandria Time: Hellenistic Age Place: between Nile River and Mediterranean Sea Source: ancient city remains Significance: ??Founded by Alexander the Great ??Was to be a link between Egypt and Mediterranean world ??Became capital of Hellenistic Kingdom of Ptolemies, was one of the most famous cities of its time ??Contained a famous library and museum- a center for leading scientific and literary figures Ptolemaic Dynasty Time: 323-30 BCE Place: Egypt Source: Significance: ??Macedonian dynasty that descended from one of Alexander the Great?s Satraps ??Ruled Egypt for 3 centuries ??Capital= Alexandria ??took over system created by Egyptian pharaohs to extract wealth from the land (king owned most of the land, so he collected rents and taxes from people living on his land) ??rewarded Greeks and others for serving in the military and administration ??economy was centrally planned and highly controlled Seleucid Dynasty Time: Hellenistic Age Place: Ancient Near East Source: Significance: ??Macedonian dynasty that ruled a major empire after Alexander the Great (3 major empires broke out after his death ruled by Seleucid, Ptolemaic, and Antigonid dynasties) ??Created a rough balance of power that prevented anyone from gaining the upper hand and enabled smaller states to survive by playing off the great powers ??Center of his empire was Babylon Mauryan Empire Time: 324-184 BCE Place: India Source: Athashastra Significance India?s first centralized empire ??First state to unify most of the Indian subcontinent- able to do this after death of Alexander the Great when collapse of Greek rule followed ??Geographically extensive, powerful, and political military empire ??Athashastra- pragmatic guide to political cusses o survival advocates the mandala theory of foreign policy- ?my enemy is my friend? o Lists schemes to enforce and increase tax collection o Prescribes the use of spies to keep watch of everyone in the kingdom ??Capital- Pataliputra in Ganges Valley o Grew wealthy from taxes on agriculture, iron mining, and control of trade routes o Internal connections of monarchs o Governed by 6 committees each in charge of some administrative element (trade, sales, tax, etc) College of Pontifices- ??Membership was an honor offered to members of politically powerful or wealthy families o Only patricians could become priests o The pontifex maximus was the most important member of the college (usually elected until Julius Caesar and other emperors started to take it once in power) ??A powerful political position to hold and the candidates for office were often very active political members of the college * the inequalities lead to conflict between the elite (?patricians?) and the majority of the population (?plebeians?) ??Conflict of the Orders * the Roman Empire fell because of internal disintegration, which also intensified the external forces Expansion- ??c. 509-290 BCE ? Italian Peninsula ??c. 264-202 BCE ? Western Mediterranean ??c. 200-146 BCE- Whole Mediterranean Corruption and Civil Wars (133-31 BCE)- resistance to regulation lead to civil Wars Punic Wars- between the Romans and the Carthaginians (Phoenicians) during the middle of 3rd century BCE when Romans expanded into southern Italy ??First Punic War (c. 264-241 BCE) o On the island of Sicily o The Romans destroyed the Carthaginian?s navy ??No particular side won, they signed a treaty ??Carthage gave up Sicily and paid Roman?s war expense ??238 BCE, the Romans took over Corsica, which angered the Carthaginians and they began to rebuild and move into Europe ??Hamilcar and Hasdrubal moved into Spain took over the Iberian peninsula ??Second Punic War (c. 218-201 BCE) o Hannibal, a 25-yr-old Carthaginian leader attacked the Roman allied city of Sanguntum and conquered it o Rome wanted Hannibal and when Carthage refused to send him over ??2nd Punic War ??Hannibal lead his army over the Alps and into Italy where he took over almost all of northern Italy ??At Zama in northern Africa, Rome reduced Carthage to a dependent state; Rome now controlled the whole of the western Mediterranean including northern Africa ??Rome went from regional power to international empire o Africa, Spain, western islands in Med. ??Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) o Roman Senate declared war on the Carthaginians after they refused to move into Northern Africa, because they were too dependent on the sea ??Romans stormed Carthage, slaughtering inhabitants and selling the rest to slavery (greatest systematic execution of non-combats up until WWII) First Triumvirate (60-53 BCE) ??Could not be resisted- dictated Roman policies, developed private armies (soldiers turned to specific rulers) ??Gnaeus Pompeius o Wealth, military reputation, political influence o Classmates then enemies with Crassus o Married Caesar?s daughter, Julia o Reconciled with other two under 1st Triumvirate ??Gauis Julius Caesar (r. 100-44 BCE) o Military genius, enormous popularity and legal reputation o Elected himself to counsul in 60 BCE o Reconciled Crassus and Pompeius o Gave Pompeius his only daughter Julia as a sign of alliance/ peace o ?Alea iacta est?- there is no turning back ??Crassus o Wealthy, greedy, died trying to build a name for himself o Not as important but Romans tried to avenge his death to maintain their reputation as powerful o Best friends with Caesar but enemies with Pompeius until Caesar united them all under the 1st Triumvirate ??The 3 senators came together forming private armies. After Crassus died, civil war broke out between Pompey and Caesar over the power of Rome o The Senate sided with Pompey and ordered Caesar to disband his armies, which he refused o After a 5 year battle- Caesar drove Pompeius out of Italy to Africa?and took over Rome o Julia?s and Crassus?s deaths undermined the alliance as well as the increase in egos and jealously Marcus Junius Brutus killed Caesar on March 15, 44 BCE at the feet of the statue of Pompes - Caesar made the mistake and took the powers a dictator, an office position that was great but a temporary power - When Caesar refused to give the position up= enemy of the state because he was no longer doing what was best for Rome, but for himself - Was Brutus justified? Was the assassination an illegal act of overthrow of a leader or a restoration of Rome from a tyrant? Octavian (Caesar Augustus) ? (r. 31 BCE- 14 CE) ??27 BCE- ?Beau Geste? the great jester o went to senate, gave power back to senate, made arrangements for them to give power back to him ??Developed offices for others but made himself these positions = military dictatorship o Princeps Senatus o Consul o Tribune (leader of assembly) o Pontifex Maximus o Imperator (supreme commander of military) o Every now and the would be a Tribune ??tried to institute prosperity and peace ??focused on conservative values: o understood Roman politics and repeated their traditions o Roman Principate- division of law = persons, property, and actionsreveal the importance of property and the rights of individuals o Ex: family, punishment for adultery= Confucius beliefs ??The family was a microcosm of the state o Commissioned poets like Virgil ??Aeneid- Latin poem written by Virgil in late 1st century BCE (29-19 BCE) ???Augustus was trying to re-introduce traditional Roman moral values, and the Aeneid is thought to reflect that aim. Aeneas, the main character, was depicted as a man devoted and loyal to his country and its prominence, rather than personal gains. He went off on a journey for the betterment of Rome. In addition, the Aeneid attempts to legitimize the rule of Julius Caesar (and by extension, of his adopted son Augustus and his heirs). o He led by example and was a model for the people and the elite o Established the Pax Romana Pax Romana- ?Roman peace? ??connoted the stability and prosperity that Roman rule brought to the lands of the Roman Empire in the first two centuries CE. The movement of people and trade goods along Roman roads and safe seas allowed for the spread of cultural practices, technologies, and religious ideas ?The Silk Road?- ( 225-235 CE) ??Extensive network of roads connecting towns, cities, and frontier forts promoted rapid communication and facilitated trade. The Silk Road carries China?s most treasured products to Central, South, and West Asia, and the Med. Islands ???The trading demands that brought the Silk Road into being were Chinese eagerness for western products, especially horses, and on the western end, the organized Parthian state, which controlled the flourishing markets of Mesopotamia and linked them ?to Central Asia.?- pg.229 ??The route was full functioning around 100 BCE o Greeks could buy silk from the Parthian traders (Iranian) o Chinese adopted pistachios, walnuts, pomegranates, sesame, etc? ??The prosperity the trade created affected not only the ethnic mix of the region, but also its cultural values o Religion and military techniques were blended? Mahayana Buddhism Time: Place: India Source: Sculpture of Buddha- most early symbols of Buddhism didn?t depict him to represent him in Nirvana and no longer existing in the circle of life. This one depicts him starving with many Greek influences from the time of Alexander the Great Significance: ???Great Vehicle? branch of Buddhism ??Focus- reverence for Buddha for bodhisattvas (enlightened persons who have postponed nirvana to help others attain enlightenment) ??A schism formed in Buddhism- Mahayana embraced popular new features while ?Teachings of the elders? followed the original teachings of the founder ??Was welcomed by many because the original principles of Buddhism did not enlist the help of gods, but focused on the importance to find enlightenment in one?s own quest. This might have demanded too much of people, so Mahayana Buddhism was more welcomed because it featured gods, myths and saints Saint Paul- ??One of Jesus?s Apostles, who sought to spread his teachings and the belief that Jesus is the Messiah and was resurrected ??Well educated in Greek language and thought, lived during the Pax Romana and on ??From 45-58 CE, he spread the word throughout Syria-Palestine, Anatolia, and Greece- converting Jews to Christianity ??Eastern Mediterranean- directed his teachings to ?gentiles? or non-Jews and set up communities for them ??Christianity spread ??Used Romans roads to travel and called on his Roman citizenship to protect him from arbitrary actions from the local authorities ???Circumcision of the heart and justification by faith?- Pauline Christianity ??did not reject Hebrew teaching or scriptures, but that Jesus was the completion of o God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit were all there at creation Mahayana Buddhism Time: Place: India Source: Sculpture of Buddha- most early symbols of Buddhism didn?t depict him to represent him in Nirvana and no longer existing in the circle of life. This one depicts him starving with many Greek influences from the time of Alexander the Great Significance: ???Great Vehicle? branch of Buddhism ??Focus- reverence for Buddha for bodhisattvas (enlightened persons who have postponed nirvana to help others attain enlightenment) ??A schism formed in Buddhism- Mahayana embraced popular new features while ?Teachings of the elders? followed the original teachings of the founder ??Was welcomed by many because the original principles of Buddhism did not enlist the help of gods, but focused on the importance to find enlightenment in one?s own quest. This might have demanded too much of people, so Mahayana Buddhism was more welcomed because it featured gods, myths and ??Ahuramazda= god of this religion, the ?good lord?, one supreme deity, creator of this world o Was deemed the single source of good because with more there would be conflict ??He made Darius king with a mandate to bring good order. Darius and his successors were Zoroastrianisms ??Ahuramazda was threatened by Angra Mainyu ?the hostile spirit? who was backed by a host of demons ??Idea of dualistic universe?struggle between good and evil. Good will eventually prevail, after which the world will return to its pure state ??Humans are participants in this struggle, and individuals are rewarded or punished in the afterlife for their actions ??Held humans on high ethical standards and promised salvation ??Judaism, and thus Christianity indirectly may indirectly stem from this religion of the Ancient World o God, the Devil, Heaven and Hell, the Messiah and the End of Time are all legacies of this belief system Poleis (Hellenic/Greek) Time: 800-480 BCE Archaic Period Place: Greece Source: The Acropolis Significance: ??These city-states emerged after the Dark Age (c.1150-800 BCE) in which Greeks had little contact outside of individual provinces, merchant trade eventually brought more contact to area ??Rapid population brought emergence of more city-states (polis means ?citystate?) with urban centers and surrounding rural areas (which had free members of the community) ando acropolis (hilltop ?top of city? area) o agora (?gathering place?)- government buildings and market places, would gather for political decisions and war time prep o Fortified walls surrounding ??specialization of labor ??Greek alphabet- first true alphabet o Used for economic reasons, preserving oral epics, literature, law codes, religious dedications, epitaphs on gravestones o Intellectual and artistic creations- theatrical drama, philosophical dialogues, courtroom oratory ??City-states were competitive with each other- fought often and developed in a new style of warfare ??Invention of coins- allowed more rapid exchanges, efficient record-keeping, storage of wealth ??Political instability Battle of Thermopylae (Persian Wars) Time: 480 BCE Place: Greece Source: Significance: ??(Persian wars- Persia had extended their power west, Greek saw this as huge threat. Persians tried to offers gifts to peacefully take over Greek land, and Greeks rejected their offers every time) ??Persian attack on Greece ??300 Spartans (Greek/ Hellenic League) fought Persians to allow their fellows to escape ??Persians then seized Athens, but went into nearby straights where they were defeated ??(also solidified that Spartans should be the great warriors of the Greeks) Delian League Time: 477 BCE Place: Sparta (Greece) Source: Significance: ended Persian threat to Greek mainland ??Voluntary alliance of Greek states eager to prosecute the war against Persia ??In less than 20 years, League forces led by Athenian generals cleared the waters of the Eastern Mediterranean from all Persians and freed all Greek communities (except distance Cyprus) Herodotus? Histories Time: c.485-425 BCE Place: Greece Source: Histories Significance: Known as the ?father of history? ??1st true historian because he was seeking the cause of historical events between the Greeks and the Persians (not solely investigative research defined by the term historia) ??Questioned why the Greeks and Persians fought each other and why the Greeks won ??His answer- hubris= excessive pride o This was why an empire fell ??Recognized difference between freedom and slavery ??Greeks won against all the means because of the different types of freedom they possessed which allowed them to beat a superior and larger group o Personal freedom o Political freedom o Intellectual freedom ??One of the first people to make the distinction between east and west Sophocles Time: 496- 406 BCE Place: Greece Source: his play writes- Oedipus, Antigone Significance: ??Greek play writer of many dramatic tragedies o Antigone- a defiant woman who buries her brother despite the king?s orders o Oedipus- unknowingly marries his mother after killing his father ??Talked about the limitations of human reason, and government rules vs. divine rules ??Lived during Persian Wars Parthenon Time: Place: Athens Source: (remains) Significance: ??Temple to Athena located on the Acropolis in Athens ??Pericles was the leader in charge during the construction and gained popularity by redistributing the profits gained ??Theme: human ability to tame/control nature ??Unity always wins over chaos ??Harmonic analysis of Parthenon- used mathematical principle to build, harmony is mathematic o One?s mind is put into balance by this harmonic representation whether they realize it or not o Used golden ratio= Phi Thucydides? Peloponnesian War Time: 460-395 BCE Place: Athens Source: History of the Peloponnesian Way Significance: historian that studied the Peloponnesian War, was dubbed the ?father of scientific history? for his strict standards of evidence-gathering analysis in terms of casue and effect (without referring to intervention from the gods) ??Athenian general and historian who was released after a bad decision with Athenian government o Argues that Athenians (or any government council can make a bad decision) ??Large groups can?t think as well as individuals Heraclitus Time: c. 535-475 BCE Place: Greece Source: Significance: ??Philosopher on metaphysical reality ??Taught CHANGE was the only thing that was constant, central to the universe ??Eris- Oppositional Process ??Dike- Apparent Stability ??Being, Logos- eternal Plato Time: c. 428-347 BCE Place: Greece Source: Significance: ??Socrates?s student, understood things through reason or innate knowledge not observation ??Founded the Academy for young men in Athens which was the first institution of higher learning in the Western world ??Wrote philosophical dialogues, philosopher, mathematician o Dialogues were in question and answer form to gain understanding of justice, excellence, and wisdom ??Helped lay the foundation for natural philosophy, science, and western philosophy ??His student was Aristotle Zhou Dynasty Time: 1045-221 BCE Place: China Source: Book of Documents, Book of Songs Significance: longest living and most revered dynasty in all of Chinese dynasties ??Overthrew Shang dynasty ??Created Mandate of Heaven theory to justify their rule ??Early period- time of prosperity and benevolent rule ??Later period- centralized control broke down, and warfare among many small states became frequent ??Western Zhou- fairly strong but decentralized monarchy that presided over fifty or more subordinate states. Over time power slipped from kings to local lords ??Eastern- loose formation of states each with their own military and political control, even more decentralized that Western Z Spring & Autumn Period Time: First part of the Eastern Zhou Period (771-481 BCE) Place: China Source: Spring and Autumn Annals Significance: ??This period is name for the text Spring and Autumn Annals that provides historical record of events in this kingdom ??The states of this era were at odds with one another and used a wide variety of ways to protect themselves and pursue their interests including: o Assassinations and coups o Conventional warfare o Diplomatic initiatives ??Overall trend- gradual consolidation into a smaller number of larger and more powerful kingdoms Warring States Period Time: Second half of the Eastern Zhou era (481-221 BCE) Place: China Source: Warring States Period bronze figurine carved in the Shang era Significance: Time of accelerated rivalry and warfare between the states ??Eventually only 7 major states remained after larger states continually conquered smaller, less able states ??States sought security o Built walls to protect borders o Gathered largest possible armies o Experimented with new war technologies, military organizations, tactics so that it could produce the greatest revenues to subsidize its expanding military and political infrastructure ??Used self-defense and aimed to increase territories ??Conquered many more people that assimilated into Chinese culture ??Most innovative sate= Qin o Employed Legalists tactics- doing things for good of state not individual, employing whatever means necessary to ensure obedience Laozi (Lao Tzu) Time: 604-517 BCE Place: China Source: Classic of the Way of Virtue Significance: Originator of Daoism ??Taught harmony with nature, ?Way of Nature? ??Human beings in nature were innately good ??Complex societies and outside forces were bad ??Unlearn what you have learned ??The world is always changing, accept the world as they find it, avoid futile struggles, and deviate as little as possible from the path of nature Confucius (Kong Fuzi) Time: 551-479 BCE Place: China Source: The Analects, Book of Documents, Book of Changes, Spring and Autumn Annals Significance: Chinese philosopher that created a code of conduct for government officials ??Believed family was the fundamental component of society- ways in which family members regulated their conduct in the home would be relevant to them as citizens of the state ??Placed high importance on making society function smoothly at every level ??His teachings provided an ethical framework for conducting one?s life and understanding one?s place in the world ??This was not a religion although he urged respect for gods, religious traditions ??Essential goodness of all people and argued that if people were shown the right way by virtuous leaders, they would voluntarily do the right thing Qin Shi Huangdi Time: (r. 221-210 BCE) Place: China Source: Penal Laws Significance: unifier of China ??Put an end to Warring States Period ??Ruled through harsh methods ??Good warrior ??Legalistic policies- believed humans were inherently bad and need a powerful state to keep people from killing each other, if state is powerful and well run, people can be in order and will thank you ??Harmony of the state Achaemenid Dynasty Time: 550 + (486??) BCE Place: Persia Source: Cyrus Cylinder Significance: Persian rulers ??Cyrus the Great- founder of the A Dynasty, expanded boundaries, employed Persians and Medes in his administration and respected the institutions and beliefs of subject peoples?considered to have written one of the first human rights documents letting people worship who they want ??Darius I- Expanded Persian control east and west, had broad ideas for humanity o Zorozastrianism- acknowledged this as official government religion and rewarded supports with position o Government- created administrative districts called Satrapies/ Satrapsidea to get greater cooperation by appointing local leaders o Had ?spies? sent into Satraps unannounced to review and make judicial decisions about them and report back to Darius o Built Persepolis Persepolis Time: 500 BCE Place: Persia Source: remains Significance ??Complex of palaces, reception halls, and treasury buildings ??Used for ceremonies of special importance to the Persian king and people such as coronations, royal weddings, funerals, and the New Year?s festival ??Built by Darius I and his son Xerxes ??Wanted an orderly world based on offering tributes to people (all different peoples were represented in artwork on walls, statues) ??Darius? goal was to bring people together Satrapies Time: Place: Source: Significance: ??Government administrative districts created under Darius I?s rule ??Appointed local leaders to get greater cooperation ??Satrap- governor of one of these provinces, often a relative of the king o Responsible for protecting province and for forwarding tribute to central administration ???spies? sent from central administration were sent to check on officials and report back or make any judicial decisions necessary while being there Alexander the Great Time: 356-323 BCE Place: Greece Source: coins Significance: ??Conquered the Persian Empire, downfall of Achaemenid Persian Empire ??created 1st effort of using cult of personality ??Spread Greek culture across other areas ??Strategically founded many Greek-style cities in conquered areas ??Had coins produced with his name on them ??Placed some obedient Persian leaders in control and pushed for Greek officials to marry Persian women, adopted many Persian elements of dress and court ceremonies Alexandria Time: Hellenistic Age Place: between Nile River and Mediterranean Sea Source: ancient city remains Significance: ??Founded by Alexander the Great ??Was to be a link between Egypt and Mediterranean world ??Became capital of Hellenistic Kingdom of Ptolemies, was one of the most famous cities of its time ??Contained a famous library and museum- a center for leading scientific and literary figures Ptolemaic Dynasty Time: 323-30 BCE Place: Egypt Source: Significance: ??Macedonian dynasty that descended from one of Alexander the Great?s Satraps ??Ruled Egypt for 3 centuries ??Capital= Alexandria ??took over system created by Egyptian pharaohs to extract wealth from the land (king owned most of the land, so he collected rents and taxes from people living on his land) ??rewarded Greeks and others for serving in the military and administration ??economy was centrally planned and highly controlled Seleucid Dynasty Time: Hellenistic Age Place: Ancient Near East Source: Significance: ??Macedonian dynasty that ruled a major empire after Alexander the Great (3 major empires broke out after his death ruled by Seleucid, Ptolemaic, and Antigonid dynasties) ??Created a rough balance of power that prevented anyone from gaining the upper hand and enabled smaller states to survive by playing off the great powers ??Center of his empire was Babylon Mauryan Empire Time: 324-184 BCE Place: India Source: Athashastra Significance India?s first centralized empire ??First state to unify most of the Indian subcontinent- able to do this after death of Alexander the Great when collapse of Greek rule followed ??Geographically extensive, powerful, and political military empire ??Athashastra- pragmatic guide to political cusses o survival advocates the mandala theory of foreign policy- ?my enemy is my friend? o Lists schemes to enforce and increase tax collection o Prescribes the use of spies to keep watch of everyone in the kingdom ??Capital- Pataliputra in Ganges Valley o Grew wealthy from taxes on agriculture, iron mining, and control of trade routes o Internal connections of monarchs o Governed by 6 committees each in charge of some administrative element (trade, sales, tax, etc) College of Pontifices- ??Membership was an honor offered to members of politically powerful or wealthy families o Only patricians could become priests o The pontifex maximus was the most important member of the college (usually elected until Julius Caesar and other emperors started to take it once in power) ??A powerful political position to hold and the candidates for office were often very active political members of the college * the inequalities lead to conflict between the elite (?patricians?) and the majority of the population (?plebeians?) ??Conflict of the Orders * the Roman Empire fell because of internal disintegration, which also intensified the external forces Expansion- ??c. 509-290 BCE ? Italian Peninsula ??c. 264-202 BCE ? Western Mediterranean ??c. 200-146 BCE- Whole Mediterranean Corruption and Civil Wars (133-31 BCE)- resistance to regulation lead to civil Wars Punic Wars- between the Romans and the Carthaginians (Phoenicians) during the middle of 3rd century BCE when Romans expanded into southern Italy ??First Punic War (c. 264-241 BCE) o On the island of Sicily o The Romans destroyed the Carthaginian?s navy ??No particular side won, they signed a treaty ??Carthage gave up Sicily and paid Roman?s war expense ??238 BCE, the Romans took over Corsica, which angered the Carthaginians and they began to rebuild and move into Europe ??Hamilcar and Hasdrubal moved into Spain took over the Iberian peninsula ??Second Punic War (c. 218-201 BCE) o Hannibal, a 25-yr-old Carthaginian leader attacked the Roman allied city of Sanguntum and conquered it o Rome wanted Hannibal and when Carthage refused to send him over ??2nd Punic War ??Hannibal lead his army over the Alps and into Italy where he took over almost all of northern Italy ??At Zama in northern Africa, Rome reduced Carthage to a dependent state; Rome now controlled the whole of the western Mediterranean including northern Africa ??Rome went from regional power to international empire o Africa, Spain, western islands in Med. ??Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) o Roman Senate declared war on the Carthaginians after they refused to move into Northern Africa, because they were too dependent on the sea ??Romans stormed Carthage, slaughtering inhabitants and selling the rest to slavery (greatest systematic execution of non-combats up until WWII) First Triumvirate (60-53 BCE) ??Could not be resisted- dictated Roman policies, developed private armies (soldiers turned to specific rulers) ??Gnaeus Pompeius o Wealth, military reputation, political influence o Classmates then enemies with Crassus o Married Caesar?s daughter, Julia o Reconciled with other two under 1st Triumvirate ??Gauis Julius Caesar (r. 100-44 BCE) o Military genius, enormous popularity and legal reputation o Elected himself to counsul in 60 BCE o Reconciled Crassus and Pompeius o Gave Pompeius his only daughter Julia as a sign of alliance/ peace o ?Alea iacta est?- there is no turning back ??Crassus o Wealthy, greedy, died trying to build a name for himself o Not as important but Romans tried to avenge his death to maintain their reputation as powerful o Best friends with Caesar but enemies with Pompeius until Caesar united them all under the 1st Triumvirate ??The 3 senators came together forming private armies. After Crassus died, civil war broke out between Pompey and Caesar over the power of Rome o The Senate sided with Pompey and ordered Caesar to disband his armies, which he refused o After a 5 year battle- Caesar drove Pompeius out of Italy to Africa?and took over Rome o Julia?s and Crassus?s deaths undermined the alliance as well as the increase in egos and jealously Marcus Junius Brutus killed Caesar on March 15, 44 BCE at the feet of the statue of Pompes - Caesar made the mistake and took the powers a dictator, an office position that was great but a temporary power - When Caesar refused to give the position up= enemy of the state because he was no longer doing what was best for Rome, but for himself - Was Brutus justified? Was the assassination an illegal act of overthrow of a leader or a restoration of Rome from a tyrant? Octavian Caesar (c. 63 BCE- 14 CE) o Rome o grandnephew of Julius Caesar- adopted heir of political influence ??Lepidus o North Africa ??Octavian manufactured evidence that Marc Antony became ?native? in Egypy ??Battle of Actium (31 BCE) o Octavian won- no one could resist ??became all powerful and made Egypt (bread basket of Rome) his province under a single Senate o Marc Antony and Cleopatra = suicide Octavian (Caesar Augustus) ? (r. 31 BCE- 14 CE) ??27 BCE- ?Beau Geste? the great jester o went to senate, gave power back to senate, made arrangements for them to give power back to him ??Developed offices for others but made himself these positions = military dictatorship o Princeps Senatus o Consul o Tribune (leader of assembly) o Pontifex Maximus o Imperator (supreme commander of military) o Every now and the would be a Tribune ??tried to institute prosperity and peace ??focused on conservative values: o understood Roman politics and repeated their traditions o Roman Principate- division of law = persons, property, and actionsreveal the importance of property and the rights of individuals o Ex: family, punishment for adultery= Confucius beliefs ??The family was a microcosm of the state o Commissioned poets like Virgil ??Aeneid- Latin poem written by Virgil in late 1st century BCE (29-19 BCE) ???Augustus was trying to re-introduce traditional Roman moral values, and the Aeneid is thought to reflect that aim. Aeneas, the main character, was depicted as a man devoted and loyal to his country and its prominence, rather than personal gains. He went off on a journey for the betterment of Rome. In addition, the Aeneid attempts to legitimize the rule of Julius Caesar (and by extension, of his adopted son Augustus and his heirs). o He led by example and was a model for the people and the elite o Established the Pax Romana Pax Romana- ?Roman peace? ??connoted the stability and prosperity that Roman rule brought to the lands of the Roman Empire in the first two centuries CE. The movement of people and trade goods along Roman roads and safe seas allowed for the spread of cultural practices, technologies, and religious ideas ?The Silk Road?- ( 225-235 CE) ??Extensive network of roads connecting towns, cities, and frontier forts promoted rapid communication and facilitated trade. The Silk Road carries China?s most treasured products to Central, South, and West Asia, and the Med. Islands ???The trading demands that brought the Silk Road into being were Chinese eagerness for western products, especially horses, and on the western end, the organized Parthian state, which controlled the flourishing markets of Mesopotamia and linked them ?to Central Asia.?- pg.229 ??The route was full functioning around 100 BCE o Greeks could buy silk from the Parthian traders (Iranian) o Chinese adopted pistachios, walnuts, pomegranates, sesame, etc? ??The prosperity the trade created affected not only the ethnic mix of the region, but also its cultural values o Religion and military techniques were blended? Saint Paul- ??One of Jesus?s Apostles, who sought to spread his teachings and the belief that Jesus is the Messiah and was resurrected ??Well educated in Greek language and thought, lived during the Pax Romana and on ??From 45-58 CE, he spread the word throughout Syria-Palestine, Anatolia, and Greece- converting Jews to Christianity ??Eastern Mediterranean- directed his teachings to ?gentiles? or non-Jews and set up communities for them ??Christianity spread ??Used Romans roads to travel and called on his Roman citizenship to protect him from arbitrary actions from the local authorities ???Circumcision of the heart and justification by faith?- Pauline Christianity ??did not reject Hebrew teaching or scriptures, but that Jesus was the completion of o God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit were all there at creation Mahayana Buddhism Time: Place: India Source: Sculpture of Buddha- most early symbols of Buddhism didn?t depict him to represent him in Nirvana and no longer existing in the circle of life. This one depicts him starving with many Greek influences from the time of Alexander the Great Significance: ???Great Vehicle? branch of Buddhism ??Focus- reverence for Buddha for bodhisattvas (enlightened persons who have postponed nirvana to help others attain enlightenment) ??A schism formed in Buddhism- Mahayana embraced popular new features while ?Teachings of the elders? followed the original teachings of the founder ??Was welcomed by many because the original principles of Buddhism did not enlist the help of gods, but focused on the importance to find enlightenment in one?s own quest. This might have demanded too much of people, so Mahayana Buddhism was more welcomed because it featured gods, myths and ??Ahuramazda= god of this religion, the ?good lord?, one supreme deity, creator of this world o Was deemed the single source of good because with more there would be conflict ??He made Darius king with a mandate to bring good order. Darius and his successors were Zoroastrianisms ??Ahuramazda was threatened by Angra Mainyu ?the hostile spirit? who was backed by a host of demons ??Idea of dualistic universe?struggle between good and evil. Good will eventually prevail, after which the world will return to its pure state ??Humans are participants in this struggle, and individuals are rewarded or punished in the afterlife for their actions ??Held humans on high ethical standards and promised salvation ??Judaism, and thus Christianity indirectly may indirectly stem from this religion of the Ancient World o God, the Devil, Heaven and Hell, the Messiah and the End of Time are all legacies of this belief system Diocletian- ??gained power in 284 and was able to save the self-destructing Rome o ?Third-Century Crisis?- form 235-284 CE when political, military, and economic problems almost destroyed the Roman Empire ??born a commoner and had risen through ranks in the army ??implemented radical reforms that transformed Rome: o stopped inflation by specifying the max prices that could be charged for various commodities and services o maintain work supply by freezing people in their professions and forcing them to train their sons to succeed them ??a ?black market? emerged among buyers and sellers who chose to ignore the gov?t?s price controls in order to establish their own prices ??the government was seen as an oppressive entity that did not deserve loyalty ??resigned in 305 and later died in his bed Tetrarchy- ??four-part division of the Roman empire established by Diocletian in 293 ??first Diocletian took over matters in the East and general Maximian in the West o they then appointed two Caesars under them = Galerius and Constantius Chlorus ??soon after Diocletian and Maximian retired and the two Caesar?s appointed two more under them o Severus II in the West under Constantius o Maximinus in the East under Galerius o THIS MADE UP THE 1ST TETRARCHY Constantine- (r. 306-337) ??reunited the entire under his sole rule by 324 ??312- won the key battle at the Milvian Bridge over the Tibet River near Rome (should have lost) ??had a dream, which he was told to put the Chi Rho on the shields ??believing that the Christian God helped him achieve his victory (because he claims to have seen a cross on the sun before battle)- he issued the Edict of Milan o this ended the persecution of Christianity and guaranteed the freedom of worship to Christians and all others o supported the Christian church??led to a lot of people converting to seek advantages ??324- transferred the imperial capital from Rome to Byzantium o renamed Constantinople= ?city of Constantine? o more educated people and Christians were living in the eastern provinces b/c the urban centers and prosperous middle-class had withstood the 3rd-century crisis more Battle of Milvian Bridge- ??battle of Constantine and Maxentius ??the underlying causes of the battle were the rivalries inherent to Diocletian?s Tetrarchy ??Constantine won and this was the end of the Tetrarchy because he became the sole leader ??According to Lactantius- Constantine and his soldiers had a vision that God promised victory if they daubed the sign of the cross on their shields o Lactantius- was a professor of rhetoric under the wishes of Diocletian; however, because he was a Christian he was dismissed under the ?Edict against the Christians? o Lived in poverty until Constantine befriended him and appointed the Christian scholar as a tutor to his son, Crispus Edict of Milan- issued in 313 CE ??Letter signed by Constantine and Licinius (Roman emperor from 308- 324 who married Constantine?s sister to unite them) that proclaimed religious toleration in the Roman Empire, especially focusing on Christianity Council of Nicaea- convened by Constantine in 325 CE ??The purpose of the council was to resolve disagreements arising from within the Church of Alexandria over the nature of Jesus in relationship to the Father; in particular, whether Jesus was the literal son of God or was he a figurative son, like the other "sons of God" in the Bible ??Historically significant as the first effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom, the Council was the first occasion for the development of technical Christology ??Arian controversy o Arius- one of the dominant figures who believed that God the Father and God the Son were not equally omnipotent or equal, but that the Son was the first creature of creation, to be created as most perfect of creatures, but not equal to the Father o Alexander- believed that the Son was co-eternal with the Father and that they were the same substance (Homoousians) o Homoiousians- the Father and the Son are of similar substance ??The Council declared that the Father and the Son are of the same substance and are co-eternal, basing the declaration in the claim that this was a formulation of traditional Christian belief handed down from the Apostles. This belief was expressed in the Nicene Creed Ka?ba- ??cubical shrine containing idols, a holy well called Zamzam, and a sacred precinct surrounding the two wherein killing was prohibited o contributed to the emergence of Mecca (a caravan city) as a pilgrimage site ??Meccans believed that Abraham was the builder of Ka?ba, and thought that a site outside of Mecca was the location where God asked Abraham to sacrifice his son, Ishmael (not Isaac) Muhammad- born in Mecca in 570 ??Orphan who engaged in trade ??Married a widow named Khadija o Owner of a business o She was the first one to hear what was being communicated to him, shared this conviction, and continued to spread it with him ??Around 610, he began meditating at night in the mountains around Mecca o One night, known as the ?Night of Power and Excellence? ? the angel of Gabriel spoke to him ??Heard the words of God (or Allah in Arabic): ??Called on people to witness that one god had created the universe and everything in it including humans ??Their souls would be judged, their sins balanced against their good deeds ??Blameless would go to paradise and the sinful to hell ???called all people to submit to God and accept Muhammad as the last of his messengers. Doing so made one a Muslim, meaning one who makes ?submission,? Islam, to the will of God? ??he fled Mecca in 622 to Medina after Mecca?s leaders began to persecute his followers o Meccan migrants and Medinans = a single umma, or community defined by the acceptance of Islam and Muhammad ??sporadic war led Mecca to surrender in 630, and Muhammed and his followers made the pilgrimage to Ka?ba ??632- Muhammed died o Abu Bakr succeed him ??continued Muhammad?s religious practices and organized his revelations into a book = Quran, which means recitation Five Pillars of Islam- Muhammad?s religious practices ??Avowal that there is only one god and Muhammad is his messenger ??Prayer five times a day ??Fasting during the lunar month of Ramadan ??Paying alms ??Making pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during one?s lifetime Charlemagne- ?Charles the Great? ??Crowned king in his mid-twenties in 768 ??Protector of the papacy ??First in Western Europe to bear the title emperor in over 300 years ??His rise and Rome?s decline??shift in focus on Europe from the Mediterranean towards the north and west Trifunctional Model- ??843- the Empire divided ??Feudalism was very decentralized ??Medieval society- ?the three orders? ??those who pray, fight, and work ???feudal society? in which kings and lords gave land to ?vassals? in return for sworn military support Genghis Khan (Temujin)- (1206-1227) ??built the largest empire ever ??Mongols acknowledge him as the supreme leader? look up pg 371-372