Psych Chapters 9-13

psychological test

standardized measure of a sample of a person's behavior

intelligence test

measure of general mental ability

aptitude test

assesses specific types of mental ability

achievement test

gauges a person's mastery and knowledge of a subject

standardization

uniform procedures used in the administration and scoring of a test

test norms

provide info about where a score on a psychological test ranks in relation to other scores on that test

percentile score

a figure that indicates the percentage of people who score below the score one has obtained

reliability

measurement consistency of a test

test retest reliability

degree of correlation between scores on the same test taken at different times

correlation coefficient

numerical index of the degree of relationship between two variables (inverse -1 to diverse 1)

validity

ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure (accuracy of inferences)

content validity

degree to which content of a test is representative of the domain it is supposed to cover

construct validity

degree to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct

Dalton

nature vs. nurture

Binet

developed test to measure mental ability of children, predicted performance very well

mental age

child's mental performance typical of a child at that age

IQ

intelligence quotient - mental age/age * 100, IQ tests are good measures for intelligence, good for academic work

Thurstone

SAT - primary mental ability; Word fluency, Verbal comprehension,

Spatial ability, Perceptual speed, Numerical ability, Inductive reasoning, Memory

Spearman

general mental ability; factor analysis of special abilities correlated with general mental ability

normal distribution

symmetrical bell shaped curve that represents that pattern in which many characteristics are dispersed in the population

deviation IQ scores

locates subjects precisely within the normal distribution

intellectual disability

refers to subnormal mental abilities accompanied by deficiencies in adaptive skills

heritability ratio

estimate of the proportion of trait variability in a population that is determined by variations in genetic inheritance

reaction range

limits of IQ that genetics sets

Flynn effect

generational increases in IQ

emotional intelligence

ability to perceive and express emotion, understand and reason with emotion, and regulate emotion

reification

occurs when hypothetical abstract concept is given a name and then treated as though it were a concrete tangible object (ego, intelligence)

creativity

the generation of ideas that are original, novel, and useful

convergent thinking

tries to narrow down a list of alternatives to converge

divergent thinking

one tries to expand the range of alternatives by generating many possible solutions

cumulative deprivation hypothesis

if environment affects intelligence, children raised in substandard circumstances will experience a gradual decline in IQ as they grow older (i.e. other kids are progressing more rapidly), if removed from environment they may then increase in intelligence

Hypothesis – genetics set limits (reaction range) of IQ and environment helps place IQ within that range

stereotype vulnerability

when girls are told girls are worse at math, their test scores on that math test might affect their performance

biological correlates of intelligence

· Reaction time (press button to a light)

· Inspection time (how long it takes participants to make simple perceptual discriminations that meet a certain criteria (which line is shorter)

· Brain size and intelligence

· Longevity (but confounds with socioeconomic class)

triarchic theory of intelligence

contextual sub theory (behaviors considered intelligent), experiential sub theory (experiences affect intelligence), componential sub theory (cognitive processes that underly all intelligent behavior)

motivation

involves goal directed behavior

drive

an internal stage of tension that motivates and organism to engage in activities that should reduce this tension

incentive

external goal that has the capacity to motivate behavior

glucose

much of food is converted into glucose - a simple sugar that is an important energy source in living organisms and is a component of many carbohydrates.

glucostats

neurons sensitive to glucose in the surrounding fluid

lateral hypothalamus

effects interest in eating

VMH

eat excessively

BMI

body mass index - weight/height^2

set-point theory

proposes that the body monitors fat cell levels to keep them (and weight) fairly stable around a certain set point

setting point theory

rather than actively maintaining a set point, weight tends to fluctuate around the level at which the constellation of factors determine food consumption and energy expenditure

vasocongestion

engorgement of blood vessels

refractory period

a time following orgasm during which males are largely unresponsive to further stimulation

parental investment

what each sex has to invest in terms of time, energy, survival, risk, and forgone opportunities, to produce and nurture offspring

sexual orientation

refers to a person’s preference for emotional and sexual relations with individuals of same sex (homo), other sex (hetero), or both (bi)

achievement motive

need to master difficult challenges to outperform others and to meet high standards of excellence

thematic apperception test

index of achievement motive, personality tests

emotion

subjective conscious experience (cognitive), body arousal (physiological), characteristic overt expressions (behavioral)

GSR

Galvanic Skin Response - a school of psychology based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure

polygraph

lie detector

facial feedback hypothesis

facial muscles send signals to the brain and these signals help the brain recognize the emotion one is experiencing

display rules

norms that regulate the appropriate expessions of emotions, when, how, and to whom people can express various emotions

James-Lange theory

the conscious experience of emotion results from one’s perception of autonomic arousal (pulse comes first, fearful emotion comes second)

Cannon-Bard theory

emotion occurs when the thalamus sends signals simultaneously to the cortex and the autonomic nervous system (fear and pulse at the same time)

Schachter's two factor theory

1) autonomic arousal

2) cognitive interpretation of that arousal

Izard

UD - study evolution of emotions

Subjective well-being

individuals’ perceptions of their overall happiness and life satisfaction

affective forecasting

effort to predict your emotional forecasting to future events

hedonic adaptation

occurs when the mental scale that people use to gauge the pleasantness/unpleasantness of their experiences shifts so that their neutral point for comparison changes, adapt to situations

social motives

· achievement

· affiliation

· independence

· nurturance

· impressing others

· organization

· play (fun)

biological motives

· hunger

· thirst

· sex

· temperature

· excretory

· sleep

· activity

· aggression

hormonal regulation of hunger

insulin secretions; after not eating for a while, stomach secretes ghrelin which causes stomach contractions and promotes hunger; after eating, intestine releases cck, reducing hunger; leptin – released by fat cells, high fat levels lead to high leptin, high leptin seems to diminish hunger

environmental regulation of hunger

o food availability and palatability

o learned habits and preferences

o stress

brain regulation of hunger

lesions of lateral hypothalamus – no interest in eating (hunger center destroyed)

lesions of ventromedial nucleus of hypothalamus - eat excessively (perception of fullness destroyed)

food converted into glucose

sexual motivation phases

Masters and Johnson – 4 phases of human sexual response

o Excitement (rapid arousal)

o Plateau (slower increases in arousal)

o Orgasm (variable, a stronger love component for women)

o Resolution

sexual motivation gender comparisons

o Males – more interest in uncommitted sex, greater number of partners (18), less choosy, often seek partners that appear young, healthy and attractive

o Females – less interest in uncommitted sex, smaller number of partners over lifetime (5), more choosy, look for income status, social status and ambition in partners

neural circuits of emotion

o Hypothalamus, amygdala, and adjacent structures in the limbic system

o Amygdala – central role in acquisition and memory of conditioned fears (fast pathway), cortex (slow pathway)

o Prefrontal cortex – voluntary control of emotional reactions

o Cingulate gyrus – pain related emotional distress

o Mesolimbic dopamine pathway – experience of pleasurable emotions

happiness

Research suggests that people are surprisingly bad at predicting what will make them happy

love/marriage, job, and past happiness are good determinants of happiness.

development

sequence of age related changes as a person progresses from conception to death

prenatal period

germinal stage, embryonic stage, fetal stage

germinal stage

1^st two weeks after conception, zygote travels down fallopian tubes, placenta is forming

placenta

structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus through the blood stream and wastes to leave

embryonic stage

2 weeks to end of second month, vital organs form

embryo

an unborn human baby, esp. in the first eight weeks from conception, after implantation but before all the organs are developed.

fetal stage

2 months to birth, baby is fetus, continued development

fetus

unborn human baby more than eight weeks after conception

age of viability

age at which a baby can survive in the event of a premature birth

fetal alcohol syndrome

collection of congenital problems associated with excessive alcohol use during pregnancy

motor development

progression of muscular coordination required for physical activities

proximodistal trend

center outward direction of motor development; children gain control over torso before extremities

cephalocaudal trend

gaining control of upper body parts before lower body parts

maturation

development that reflects the gradual unfolding of one’s genetic blue print genetically programed physical changes that come with age

developmental norms

typical age when individuals display various behaviors and abilities

temperament

refers to characteristic mood, activity level, and emotional reactivity

longitudinal study

investigators observe one group over time

cross sectional study

compare groups of participants at different ages at a single point in time

cohort effects

differences between age groups that are attributable to the groups growing up in different time periods

attachment

close emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and caregivers

separation anxiety

emotional distress seen in infants when separated from people they have formed a bond with

cognitive development

transitions in youngsters’ patterns of thinking, including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving

stage

a developmental period during which characteristic patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain capacities become established

Erik Erikson

how you develop depends on how you deal with psychosocial crisis

Jean Piaget

Stage Theory

1 – sensorimotor period (birth-2 years) – sensory input and motor responses, object permanence

2 – preoperational period (2-7 years) – symbolic thought – irreversibility, centration, egocentrism

3 – concrete operational period (7-11 years) – concrete events – conservation, heirarchy

4 – formal operational period (11+)

object permanence

develops when a child recognizes that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible

centration

tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglects other aspects

conservation

Piaget’s term for the awareness that phsycial quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance

irreversibility

inability to envision reversing an action

egocentrism

characterized by a limited ability to share another persons view points

animism

the belief that all things are living

Lev Vygotsky

sociocultural theory - social interactions and cultural differences and language development, language serves as the foundation for cognitive processes

ZPD

zone of proximal development – gap between what the learner can accomplish alone and what he can achieve with guidance

Lawrence Kohlberg

reasoning as opposed to behavior; measured nature and progression of moral reasoning

3 levels, each with 2 sublevels

preconventional

conventional

postconventional

pubescence

two year span preceding puberty during which changes leading to physical and sexual maturity take place

primary sex characteristic

mark onset of puberty

menarche

spermarche

secondary sex characteristic

distinguishing characteristics but not essential for reproduction

stereotyped to averages (ex – guys more muscular, shorter hair)

menarche

first occurrence of menstruation (12-13); primary sex characteristic

spermarche

first occurrence of ejaculation (13-14); primary sex characteristic

synaptic pruning

grey matter decreases

menopause

around 50, no more menstruation

dementia

abnormal condition marker by multiple cognitive deficits that include memory impairment

fluid intelligence

basic reasoning, memory, speed declines more than crystallized intelligence (application and problem solving)

crystallized intelligence

application and problem solving

gender stereotypes

widely held beliefs about males and females abilities, personality traits and behavior

socialization

the acquisition of the norms, roles, and behaviors expected of people in a particular society

gender roles

expectations about what is appropriate behavior for each sex

environmental factors in prenatal development

o Maternal nutrition

o Drug use

o Illness

theories of attachment

early theories of attachment focused on feeding reinforcement (nurture)

biological basis (nature)- infants are biologically programmed to emit behavior that triggers an affectionate protective response from adults; adults are programmed to be captivated by this behavior

attachment

close emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers

Kholberg's stage theory

development of moral reasoning (6 stages)

1 – punishment orientation

2 – naïve reward orientation

3 – good boy/good girl orientation

4 – authority orientation

5 – social contract orientation

6 – individual principles and conscience orientation

neural development

adolescence

· increasing myelinization (white matter increases) – faster thinking

· synaptic pruning (grey matter decreases)

· changes in prefrontal cortex – last area of brain to fully mature (mid 20s)

executive control center

response inhibition

planning

emotional regulation

search for identity

Kohlberg:

identity achievement (successful achievement of a sense of identity)

identity moratorium (active struggling for a sense of identity)

identity foreclosure (unquestioning adoption of parental or societal values)

identity diffusion (absence of struggle for identity, with no obvious concern about it)

personality

individual's unique constellation of consistent behavioral traits

personality traits

durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations

psychodynamic theories

include all the diverse theories descended from the work of Freud

psychoanalytic theory

attempts to explain personality, motivation and psychological disorders by focusing on early childhood experience, unconscious motives, methods used to cope with aggression and sexual urges

pleasure principle

according to Freud, the principle upon which the id operates, demanding immediate gratification of its urges

reality principle

according to Freud, the principle on which the ego operates, which seeks to delay gratification of the id’s urges until appropriate outlets and can be found

conscious

aware

preconscious

just beneath the surface

unconscious

way below surface of awareness

defense mechanisms

largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt

rationalization

creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior

repression

keeping thoughts buried in unconscious

projection

attributing one's thoughts and motives to another

displacement

diverting one's feeling (anger) from the original source to a substitute source

reaction formation

behaving in a way that is opposite to your feelings

regression

a reversion to immature patterns of behavior

identification

bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group

psychosexual stages

developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leaves their mark on adult personality

fixation

failure to move forward from one stage to another as expected

Oedipal complex

desire for opposite sex parent, hostility towards same sex parent

personal unconscious

according to Jung, the level of awareness that houses material that is not within one’s conscious awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten

collective unconscious

stuff everyone knows; storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people’s ancestral past

archetypes

ancestral memories, emotional

striving for superiority

Alfred Adler -individual psychology

compensation

efforts to overcome inferiority

Alfred Adler

individual psychology

Carl Jung

analytical psychology; personal unconscious

BF Skinner

(behavioral) conditioning, environmental determinism, personality is a collection of response tendencies

Albert Bandura

(behavioral) social learning theory

reciprocal determinism

the assumption that internal mental events, external environmental events, and overt behavior all influence each other

observational learning

a type of learning that occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models

models

a person whose behavior is observed by another

self efficacy

one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes

Walter Mischel

(behavioral) situational factors govern behavior

humanism

theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth

phenomenological approach

assumes one has to appreciate individuals personal subjective experiences to truly understand

Carl Rogers

(humanism) person centered theory

self concept

mental picture of yourself

Conditional/unconditional love/positive regard

Incongruence (gap between self concept and reality increases with conditional parents)

Anxiety and defense

Congruence – self-concept meshes well with actual experience (some incongruence is probably unavoidable)

Abraham Maslow

(humanism) hierarchy of needs, self actualization theory

hierarchy of needs

basic needs must be met before less basic needs are aroused

self-actualization theory

people with exceptionally healthy personalities, marked by continued personal growth

Hans Eysenck

biological

David Buss

biological

self report inventories

pros - objective and precise, extensive comparative data

cons - deliberate deception, social desirability bias

projective tasks

Rorschach’s test (ink blot), Thematic Apperception Test, pros: not transparent to respondents, sensitive to unconscious features of personality, cons: scientific evidence is unimpressive

incongruence

the degree of disparity between one’s self-concept and one’s actual experience

Freud's personality structure

ID - primitive, instinctive component, operates by pleasure principle (immediate gratification of urges)

ego - decision making component – reality principle – delay gratification of id’s urges until situation appropriate

superego - morality

Freud's psychosexual stages

oral (age 0-1) – mouth (sucking biting) – weaning (from breast/bottle)

anal (2-3 years) – anus (expelling or retaining feces) – toilet training

phallic (4-5 years) – genitals (masturbating) – identifying with adult role models, coping with Oedipal crisis

latency (6-12 years) – none (sexually repressed) – expanding social contacts

genital (puberty onward) – genitals (being sexually intimate)

evaluating psychodynamic perspectives

Pros

The unconscious

The role of internal conflict

The importance of early childhood experiences

Defense mechanisms

Cons

Poor testability

Inadequate empirical base

Sexist views

contemporary empirical approach

terror management theory - increasing subjects’ mortality salience causes them to:

o Punish moral transgressions more harshly

o Be less tolerant of criticism of their country

o Give greater rewards to those who uphold cultural standards

o Respect cultural icons more

culture and personality

Independent self system

o Unique

o Squeaky wheel gets oileed

o (US)

Interdependent self

o Part of a group

o The nail that sticks out gets hammered down

o (Asian cultures)

biopsychosocial model

physical illness is caused by a complex interaction of biological psychological and sociocultural factors

health psychology

concerned with how psychosocial factors relate to the promotion and maintenance of health and with the causation, prevention, and treatment of illness

stress

any circumstances that threaten or are perceived to threaten one’s well-being and that thereby tax one’s coping abilities

acute stressors

threatening events that have a relatively short duration and a clear endpoint

chronic stressors

threatening events that have a relatively long duration and no readily apparent time limit

frustration

blocked goal

conflict

incompatible motivators

approach-approach conflict

choice between two attractive goals

avoidance-avoidance conflict

choice between two unattractive goals

approach-avoidance conflict

a single goal with pros and cons

life changes

any significant alterations in one's living circumstances that require re-adjustment

pressure

expectations or demands that one behave in a certain way

inverted U hypothesis

performance improves with increased emotional arousal up to a point then decreases, also depends on task complexity (like a bell curve)

fight or flight response

physiological reaction to threat in which the autonomic nervous system mobilizes the organism for attacking (fight) or fleeing (flight) an enemy

general adaptation syndrome

a model of the body's stress response, consisting of the three stages: alarm, resistance and exhaustion

coping

active efforts to reduce or tolerate demands created by stress

o self indulgence

o internet addiction

learned helplessness

passive behavior produced by exposure to unavoidable aversive events

aggression

any behavior that is intended to hurt someone, either physically or verbally

catharsis

release of emotional tension

frustration-aggression hypothesis

aggression is always caused by frustration

displacement

diversion of anger to a substitute target

defense mechanisms

largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt

often work through self deception or fantasy

constructive coping

relatively healthful efforts that people make to deal with stressful events

burnout

physical and emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and a lowered sense of self-efficacy that can be brought on gradually by chronic work-related stress

psychosomatic diseases

genuine physical ailments that were thought to be caused in part by stress and other psychological factors - It's all in your head.

Type A personality

strong competitiveness

impatience and time urgency

anger and hostility

Type B personality

more relaxed and easy going; patient and amicable

social support

various types of aid and emotional sustenance provided by members of one's social networks

optimism

a general tendency to expect good outcomes

emotional responses to stress

o annoyance, anger, rage

o apprehension, anxiety, fear

o dejection, sadness, grief

o positive emotions (bonding, appreciation)

behavioral responses to stress

o frustration-aggression hypothesis

o displacement

o catharsis

o blowing off steam may beget more steam

physiological responses to stress

psychosomatic diseases; heart disease

types of stress

· frustration

· conflict

effects of stress

reduced immune activity

emotional reactions and depression

heart disease

psychosomatic diseases

Big Five personality traits

extraversion - outgoing, sociable, assertive, friendly

neuroticism - anxious, hostile, insecure, vulnerable

agreeableness - sympathetic, trusting, cooperative, modest, straightforward

conscientiousness - disciplined, well-organized, punctual, dependable

openness to experience - curiosity, flexibility, fantasy, imaginativeness, artistic sensitivity, unconventional attitudes

Psych Chapters 9-13

Psychology 100 with Roth at University of Delaware

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