Psychology - Module Notes - Development.doc

Faisal Ilyas 11/14/09 Psychology Today, most psychologists believe that nature and nurture combine to influence our actions, thoughts, and feelings. Psychologists disagree about whether the changes in adulthood are the result of programmed stages of biological development or are reactions to significant events, such as marriage and the birth of children. Stage theorists believe that all children pass through the same qualitatively different stages in the same order. Assimilation (Piaget) ? The process of adding new information to existing concepts, or schemas, that result in quantitative changes in a child?s cognitions. Accommodation ? The process of changing schemas in qualitative ways to incorporate new experiences. Piaget?s four stages of cognitive development The Sensorimotor Stage (birth-2 years) An infant conceptualizes the world in terms of schemas that incorporate sensory information and motor activities Mental representation closely tied to sensory experience Lacks object permanence The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years) Children can think in mental images, but exhibit egocentric thinking 24 months to 7 years of age Fails to understand principle of conversation Believes that there is more water in a tall, narrow glass that has been filled from a short, wide glass Acquires object permanence The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years) Children increase their ability to reason logically Has increased symbolic thinking Understands rational terms The Formal Operational Stage (11 years on) An individual uses full adult logic and can understand abstract concepts. Solves if/then problems Engages in deductive reasoning Adolescence ? The development period from the onset of puberty until the beginning of adulthood. Primary Sex Characteristics ? The biological changes which are triggered by the production of sex hormones Within each sex, there is wide variation in the age at which puberty begins. Menarche, the first menstrual period, occurs in American females at about 12 years and 6 months Males produce sperm at about the age of 14 Secondary sex characteristics appear in both genders during puberty Prenatal Risks Medication Thalidomide ? Relieve symptoms of nausea in pregnant women. This caused many birth defects and physical abnormalities. Diethylstilbestrol (DES) ? Administered to women in an attempt to reduce the likelihood of miscarriage. Females found to have a greater risk of developing cancer of the cervix. Antibiotics ? Antibiotics such as streptomycin and tetracycline, when given to pregnant women, have been linked to hearing loss and lack of bone growth in children. Cigarette Smoking Linked to low birth weight, premature birth, breathing difficulties during sleep, and increased mortality. Alcohol & Drug Use Even modest amounts of drinking can impair the developing embryo or fetus Children exposed to high levels of alcohol in the womb may suffer from fetal alcohol syndrome characterized by decreased intelligence and physical defects Prenatal exposure to alcohol is the leading cause of mental retardation Babies of mothers addicted to cocaine or heroine are often addicted themselves Environmental Toxins Over 100,000 man made industrial substances can potentially harm the developing embryo The baby is exposed to these toxins present in the mothers blood and the surrounding amniotic fluid Toxins include lead, mercury, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) Disease During the 11th week, diseases such as rubella can cause hearing loss, vision loss, intellectual impairment, or heart problems STD?s can cause miscarriages or abnormalities in the developing fetus Malnutrition Vitamin deficiencies during pregnancies are linked with increased incidence of birth defects Severe malnutrition can inhibit the production of neurons in the developing brain Prenatal Stages Germinal Stage ? First 2 weeks post conception Embryonic Stage ? 2 weeks post-conception to 2 months post-conception Fetal Stage ? 2 months post-conception to birth Fetus Has Full Complement Of Neurons ? 12 weeks post-conception Sex Organs Differentiate ? 18 weeks post-conception Fetus Can Move Arms & Legs ? 20 weeks post-conception Fetus Shows Sleep Cycles ? 24 weeks post-conception Full Term Birth ? 38 Weeks Reflexes Grasping Objects placed in the palm of hand are grasped tightly Sucking Touch on the lips causes the infant to suck Rooting A touch on the cheek causes the head to turn in that direction Moro When the baby is startled, its arms and legs extend and then are gradually moved back to the body in a clasping motion Walking When held upright, infants take small steps Babinski Toes spread out when the bottom of the foot is stroked Motor Milestones 2 Months ? Rolls over 3 Months ? Sits up with help 5 Months ? Sits without support 6 Months ? Stands while holding on to furniture 7 Months ? Crawls 9 Months ? Walks while holding on to another person 12 Months ? Stands alone 13 Months - Walks unassisted 17 Months ? Walks up steps Infancy and Childhood Physical Development Birth ? Able to focus on objects 6-12? distant 2 Months ? Rolls over 6 Months ? Vision improves to 20/100 and refuses to cross a visual cliff 13 Months ? Walks unassisted 2 Years ? Synaptic density begins to decrease 5 Years ? Brain achieves 90% adult size Puberty ? 12-13 years Lifespan Physical Development Review Activity 11-13 Years ? Puberty Age 16 ? Brain achieves 100% adult size Early 20?s ? Frontal lobes are fully mature 20?s ? Peak speed reaction Age 30 ? Muscle strength begins to decline 45-55 Years ? Menopause 52-64 Years ? 42% of people are farsighted Age 85 ? Chance of being diagnosed with Alzheimer?s approaches 50% Slightly Over 100 Years ? Maximum lifespan Egocentrism 4 year olds tend to pick cards at random. By age 5 children have sorted out their views but cant disassociate themselves from their own view to indicate what the dolls see. By age 6-7, children realize that the doll cannot see what they see but often select the wrong photo. Not until age 9 or 10 do children consistently select the doll?s actual view. Erikson?s Stages Stagnation vs. Generativity - Caring Doubt vs. Autonomy - Determination Mistrust vs. Trust ? Hope Isolation vs. Intimacy ? Commitment Despair vs. Integrity - Wisdom Role Confusion vs. Identity - Identity Inferiority vs. Industry ? Competence Guilt vs. Initiative ? Purpose Mistrust vs. Trust ? Birth-1 year Doubt vs. Autonomy ? 1-3 years Guilt vs. Initiative ? 3-6 years Inferiority vs. Industry ? 6-to adolescence Role Confusion vs. Identity ? Adolescence Isolation vs. Intimacy ? Young Adulthood Stagnation vs. Generativity ? Adulthood Despair vs. Integrity ? Late life Three Forms of Development Physical (biological) Psychosocial Cognitive Infancy And Toddlerhood: Birth ? Age 2 (Approx.) Biological Body doubles in height and quadruples in weight Neurons grow in increasingly dense connections, becoming coated with layers of myelin, and enabling faster and more efficient message transmission Motor skills progress from simple reflexes to coordinated motor abilities, such as grasping and walking Sensory and perceptual abilities develop rapidly Experiences help to fine tune the brain?s responses to stimulus Cognitive Basic structure of language learned through baby talk with adults First communication emerges through crying, then cooing and babbling Language skills progress from speaking a few words by age 1, to constructing phrases by age 2 Awareness of world progresses through immediate sensorimotor experiences to mental representations of events Thinking includes concept of object: objects still exist when out of sight or awareness Ability to grasp conceptual categories begins; by age 2 numerous definite concepts develop Psychosocial Emotional responses change from basic reactions to more complex, self-conscious responses Independent behaviors increase with parental encouragement around feeding, dressing, and toilet training Parents and infants respond to each other by synchronizing their behavior Development of secure attachment sets stage for child?s increasingly independent exploration Ability to relate to playmates emerges by end of period Early personality traits, such as introversion and extroversion, develop Early Childhood: Ages 2-6 (Approx.) Biological Brain attains 90% of its adult weight by age 5, developing faster than any other body part Myelination proceeds at different rates in various areas of the brain, resulting in different rates of readiness for certain types of activities Physical strength increases and body proportion become more adult-like Athletic skills, such as running, jumping, hopping dramatically improve Fine motor skills, such as writing and drawing, develop slowly Gender differences in motor skills begin emerge Cognitive Use of mental representation and symbols, such as words, begins Ideas about the world continue to be somewhat illogical Social interactions with parents and playmates teach about the world Language abilities develop rapidly, resulting, on average, in a 14,000 word vocabulary and extensive grammatical knowledge by age 6 Ability to adjust communication to audience begins Metacognition, the ability to think about thought, forms Psychosocial Play alone or with others becomes increasingly complex and imaginative Increase energy fosters ability to initiate new activities, especially if child receives praise for actions First awareness of gender roes emerge Desire for independence and control over environment increases, making parents? supervisory role more challenging Parenting style influences child?s psychosocial development Socialization in school encourages thinking about world outside the home Middle Childhood: Ages 7-9 (Approx.) Biological Brain growth slows Physical growth slows, but slight height spurts occur Expansion of heart and lung capacities supports more physical endurance Athletic and fine motor skills become more refined Cognitive Ability to understand logical principle develops Memory capacity and ability to use mnemonics expand Metacognition, the ability to think about thought, enables organization of own learning Use of language becomes more analytical Proficiency in more than one language code may begin, sometimes resulting in bilingualism Psychosocial Peer group becomes more significant as dependence shifts to friends for help, loyalty, and sharing to mutual interests Awareness of and involvement in outside world increases awareness of family, economic, and political conditions Motivational systems build around achievement, competence, and affiliation Coping strategies develop for problem solving and stress tolerance Interpersonal strategies develop to aid in understanding others? behavior Late Childhood: Ages 10-12 (Approx.) Biological Puberty begins with rising hormone levels Girls? growth spurt begins with gains in height, weight, and musculature Gender specific physical changes appear within first year: enlargement of breasts in girls and testes in boys In Physical maturation, boys lag, on average, 2 years behind girls Variation in onset of puberty impact personality development Cognitive Logical thought progresses to abstract thinking Planning skills and memory strategies improve Long-term knowledge base grows Language skills expand to include synonyms, categories, double meanings, metaphors, humor, and complex grammatical structure Psychosocial Changes in physique, sexuality, cognitive functioning, and society?s treatment may challenge sense of self Appreciation of connection between moral rules and social conventions strengthens Peer groups often divide into cliques Awareness of gender stereotypes continue increase Issues increase around autonomy, sibling rivalry, and separation from family Early Adolescence: Ages 13-15 (Approx.) Biological Body continues to grow in height and weight Girls? growth spurt peaks while boys typically begin it Motor performance gradually increases, but often levels off for girls Girls usually start to menstruate and boys to ejaculate Cognitive Thinking becomes more self-conscious, idealistic, and critical Metacognition and self-regulation further develop Vocabulary expands to include abstract words Understanding and grasp of complex grammar continue to improve Ability to grasp irony and sarcasm develops Psychosocial Issues of identity emerge, potentially leading to crisis in sense of self Sexual orientation begins to emerge Psychological disorders and Sociocultural-adaptational disorders may emerge Strives for autonomy in relation to family continue to increase, and parent-child conflicts more likely to occur Friendships have greater emphasis on intimacy and loyalty Conformity to peer pressure increases Late Adolescence: Ages 16-19 (Approx.) Biological Boys? growth spurt peaks, and growth is mostly complete by end of this period Boys develop deeper voices and patterns of facial hair, and typically grow taller than their female peers Girls tend to grow wider in the hips, and breast development continues for several years Girls? motor performance peaks while boys? continue to improve Cognitive Reasoning through problems in symbolic terms and through use of formal logic improves Fluid intelligence, the ability to cope with new problems and situations, is reached by the end of this period Ability to understand and integrate rules into sense of self becomes basis for character development Psychosocial Development of identity continues in relation to adult world First dating begins process of developing and maintaining intimate relationships Cliques decline in importance Identity achievement greatly influenced by personal factors, including relationships with family and peers, and economic and political circumstances Increased assertiveness and lack of self-discipline often create conflicts with parents Sexual orientation continues to develop Introduction begins to the world of work and career planning Early Adulthood: Ages 20-40 (Approx.) Biological Physical functioning increases through the 20?s and peaks at about age 30, but can be maintained through exercise Body shape changes, with gradual increases in weight and body fat and decreases in lean muscle mass Efficiency of many organs systems begins to diminish at the rate of about 1% a year Sexual responsiveness remains high throughout this period, with some slowing in men Physical appearance changes; gray hair and wrinkles develop toward end of this period Cognitive Thinking may become practical and dialectical to adapt the inconsistencies and complexities in daily experiences Short-term memory peaks Wisdom and expertise begin to develop Vocabulary and knowledge continue to grow through work interactions and everyday problem-solving Psychosocial Issues of identity and intimacy peak by age 30 Need for affiliation filled by friends and often a marriage/partner Friendships become particularly important for people who are single Need for achievement often met through satisfactory work consistent with personality and abilities Personality traits most likely to change up to age 30, with additional maturation continuing into the 40?s Middle Adulthood: Ages 40-65 (Approx.) Biological Gradual changes continue in appearance of skin, hair, and body shape Gradual changes occur in hearing and vision, including presbyopia, the inability to focus on near objects Menopause begins in women Health and potential onset of disease affected by preventive behaviors, many of which vary by social class Cognitive Fluid intelligence declines while crystallized intelligence remains steady or increases Intellectual abilities dependent on speed and novelty decrease, while abilities involving knowledge about the world and vocabulary increase Reaction time and mental processing speed slow Short and long-term memory remain relatively stable Cognitive abilities related to experience and intelligence flourish, leading to further formation of expertise. Psychosocial Mid-life crisis occurs in a small minority of cases, because most men and women experience gradual transitions in sense of self and in relationship with the world Personality traits tend to remain stable Friendship and marriage/partnership continue as primary sources of affiliation Marital satisfaction often rises as children move away from home Maintenance phase in career may allow for greatest productivity at work, may also cause burn-out Experiences of facing age discrimination more likely Late Adulthood: Ages 65 ? Onward (Approx.) Biological Brain becomes physically smaller and functions more slowly Gradual changes continue in appearance, along with weakening of the body sense organs and major body systems Losses continue in visual and hearing abilities Decrease in immune system and overall muscle strength put older adults at risk of chronic and acute illness Short-term memory may decline, but active exercise of mental abilities helps to maintain functioning Age-related changes impact sexual functioning, but not pleasure Cognitive Abilities to receive information, store it in memory, and organize and interpret it decline Some short-term memory abilities decline, but methods can help compensate for memory loss and slower thinking Aesthetic, philosophical, or spiritual interests emerge or intensify Language abilities based on memory and processing speed decline, but overall vocabulary continue to grow Driving-related abilities dependent on information processing speed decreases, while skills based on experience increase Wisdom, experience-based problem solving, and semantic knowledge increase Psychosocial Retirement experience shaped by social class and gender factors, including income, health, and amount of previous planning Abilities to cope with stress, reduce negative emotions, and manage personal relationships improve broader perspective on life Subjective sense of well-being tends to be higher than at all previous periods Satisfaction with life largely dependent on family involvement Bereavement for spouse, friends, and families stressful, but most people are able to integrate a loss into their lives within one year after it happens End-of-life care that incorporates pain management and psychological support greatly impacts well-being Ainsworth?s 3 Categories of Attachment Secure Use mom as a secure base. Infants prefer mom to strangers, distressed during separation periods, and happy when she returns Anxious-ambivalent Don?t use mom as a secure base. Often clingy, prefer mom to stranger. VERY distressed during separation periods. Clingy, resistant, and angry upon her return Avoidant Don?t use mom as a secure base. Appear sad and dejected. Sometimes prefer stranger to mom. Don?t typically get distressed during separation periods, ignore mom during the strange situation and upon return Peoples who are high in attachment-related anxiety tend to worry about whether their partners really love them and often fear rejection. People low on this dimension are much less worried about such matters. Second, some people are more avoidant than others. People who are high in attachment-related avoidance are less comfortable depending on others and opening up to others. {Attachment related anxiety score: 2.22 (on a scale ranging from 1 (low anxiety) to 7 (high anxiety) Attachment related avoidant score: 1.73 (on a scale ranging from 1 (low avoidance) to 7 (high avoidance) SECURE} Secure ? don?t typically worry about whether their partner?s are going to reject them and they are comfortable being emotionally close to others. Secure people tend to have relatively enduring and satisfying relationships. They are comfortable expressing their emotions, and tend not to suffer from depression and other psychological disorders. The research design that would be most affected by cohort differences is CROSS-SECTIONAL RESEARCH The primary development of the organs takes place during the EMBRYONIC period. Which of the following is caused by an extra chromosome? DOWN-SYNDROME Jennifer's young baby flings out his arms, arches his back, and spreads his fingers. Jennifer is unconcerned because she knows this is simply a STARTLE reflex. Margo is an infant being tested with the Strange Situation method. When her mother leaves, Margo does not cry. When her mother returns, Margo doesn't even look at her and won't allow her to pick Margo up. Ainsworth would say that Margo is most likely AVOIDANT attached. Jean read all the latest parenting books and decided that she would not punish her new son, George. She allowed him to do whatever he wanted and refused to correct his behavior, fearing that she would stifle his development. She would be called a(n) PERMISSIVE parent. Andy, who is four years old, gets up early one morning and decides to make his own breakfast. He manages to get cereal and milk, but spills some of both in the process. He is proud of himself for getting his own food, but worries that his mother will punish him for doing so. Andy is most likely in which of Erikson's stages? INITIATIVE VS. GUILT A child in the CONCRETE OPERATIONAL stage of Piaget's theory would be able to solve a conservation task, but would be unable to understand a hypothetical problem. Which theorist would say that parents and teachers should help a child learn by presenting material that is new, but within the limits of a zone of proximal development? VYGOTSKY A child who turns in his own father for using drugs would most likely be in which of Kohlberg's levels of moral development? CONVENTIONAL Gilligan suggests that Kohlberg's stages of moral development are inadequate to explain moral development in women, because men use abstract principles such as JUSTICE, while women use a morality of CARING. Which of the following statements about single-parent families is NOT true? CHILDREN FROM SINGLE-PARENT FAMILIES ARE LESS WELL-ADJUSTED THAN CHILDREN WITH TWO PARENTS When you first buy a new set of underwear, the elastic in the waistband is strong and very springy. As you wear, wash, and continue to use them, however, the waistband eventually loses its elasticity. This would be most like which kind of aging theory? WEAR-AND-TEAR THEORY Gerald has lived a long time. He doesn't think as fast as he used to, and finds that he needs more time to work out solutions to problems. Gerald is showing the typical decline in FLUID intelligence. Bea refuses to let aging affect her fun. She has several hobbies that she remains active in, plays bridge with the girls every Tuesday, and continues to participate in her bowling league at the age of 68. Bea's aging process is best viewed in terms of the ACTIVITY theory of aging.