Test 2 Study Guide Notes from Txt (P.92-101)

StudyBlue printing of Test 2 Study Guide Notes from Txt (P.92-101) html, body, div, span, applet, object, iframe, h1, h2, h3, h4, h5, h6, p, blockquote, pre, a, abbr, acronym, address, big, cite, code, del, dfn, em, font, img, ins, kbd, q, s, samp, small, strike, strong, sub, sup, tt, var, b, u, i, center, fieldset, form, label, legend, table, caption, tbody, tfoot, thead, tr, th, td { margin: 0; padding: 0; border: 0; outline: 0; font-size: 100%; background: transparent; } body { line-height: 1; } blockquote, q { quotes: none; } blockquote:before, blockquote:after, q:before, q:after { content: ''; content: none; } /* remember to define focus styles! */ :focus { outline: 0; } /* remember to highlight inserts somehow! */ ins { text-decoration: none; } del { text-decoration: line-through; } /* tables still need 'cellspacing="0"' in the markup */ table { border-collapse: collapse; border-spacing: 0; } /* end RESET */ .header { min-width:800px; } .logo { padding:6px 20px 2px 20px; margin:0; font-size:25px; font-weight:bold; color:#808285; position:relative; border-bottom: 1px solid #c5c5c5; } .logo-blue { color:#70adc4; } .logo-desc { font-weight:normal; font-size:19px; color:#cccccc; margin-top:50px; position:absolute; display: none; } .back-button { position:absolute; top:20px; right:20px; font-size:13px; line-height:25px; color:rgb(0,175,225); font-weight:normal; } .back-button a { color:rgb(0,175,225); } .instructions { padding:0; margin:0; width:100%; position:relative; color:rgb(100,100,100); } .step-holder { border-left:1px solid #ededed; margin-left:20px; } .steps { padding:15px 0; float:left; width:24%; border-right:1px solid #ededed; text-align:center; } .steps-01 { } .steps-02 { } .steps-03 { } .steps-04 { } .label { padding:5px 10px; } .print-button { } .print-button a { background-color:rgb(0,175,225); color:white; line-height: 19px; padding:9px 8px 5px 30px; font-size:14px; text-decoration:none; background-image: url(images/printer.png); background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: 7px 50%; -moz-border-radius: 5px; -webkit-border-radius: 5px; } .print-button a:hover { background-color:black; } .theNote .content { width: 8.0in !important; margin: 5px auto; padding:20px; background-color:white; } .theNote .header { border-bottom: 1px dashed #C8C8C8; font-size: 17px; padding: 0 0 10px; line-height: 19px; color: #00ADE1; min-width:500px; } .theNote .body { font-size: 14px; line-height: 19px; padding: 10px 0; } .theNote{ padding:6px 0; clear:both; background-color: rgb(200,200,200); } .theNote h3{ color: rgb(100,100,100); } .theNote h1, .theNote h3{ background-color:white; padding:2px 20px; width:8.0in !important; margin: 0 auto; font-size: 15px; } .theNote h1{ padding-top: 10px; font-size: 15px; } .theNote h1:first-child{ font-size: 20px; } .theNote h3 { font-size: 14px; font-weight: normal; } #options { border: 3px double #ccc; padding: 5px 12px; margin: 10px 50px 10px 20px; float: left; } #info { border-top: 1px solid #ccc; padding-top: 5px; font-style: italic; } li { margin: 5px 10px 5px 25px; } ul li { list-style: disc; } ol li { list-style: decimal; } img { border: 0; } table { clear: both; width: 100%; border: 1px solid #c5c5c5; border-width: 1px 0; margin: 0; page-break-after: always; } table#page { page-break-after: auto; } td { text-align: center; font-size: 12px; border-bottom: 1px dashed #c5c5c5; height: 1.75in; width: 50%; padding-left: 15px; } .leftside { border-right: 1px solid #cccccc; padding: 0 15px 0 0; } .bottom td { border-bottom: none; } .clearfix { clear:both; line-height:1px; height:1px; } img { max-width:80%; max-height:150px; margin:20px; } @media print {.header { display: none; } .content .header{ display:inherit; } table { border: 1px dashed #bbb; border-width: 1px 0; } .theNote{ background-color:white; } } Study Guide Notes from Text Shifting cultivation and dry land gardening are quite different varieties of horticulture, practiced in distinct kinds of environments. In both methods, the amount of food that people can get from an acre is much greater than what could naturally be harvested by foragers. These methods are said to be "simple" agriculture, both require that people remove most of the natural vegetation from the land so that crops can be planted. Finally both require that people invest their labor in their gardens, or fields in expectation of a later return. Foragers as you recall seldom do such things. Two most important ways in which the horticulture adaptation shapes the cultures of people who live by it. the size and permanence of settlements increase, the aggregated into villages. among horticulturalists, the rights to land are better defined particular individuals, families, and other groups are more attached to specific places where they or their ancestors have established a claim The claim (which includes at least the right to deny other families access to it) arises from the public recognition that the family improved the plot by investing their labor in it. In any generation any given individual or family thus has ownership rights to specific parcels which usually include the gardens they are actually cultivating. "Property rights" become more important and people pay more attention than most foragers to who owns what. Two of the major ways the cultures of horticulturalists differ from those of foragers are: living groups (villages) are larger and more permanently settled and families have more definite rights of ownership to particular pieces of land. Being sedentary means that people can store their possessions rather than having to carry them around, which presents the potential for accumulating wealth. horticulture supports higher population densities than foraging, the number of people it can support is low relative to the farming system known as intensive agriculture. Intensive agricultural people use only short fallow periods, so they farm each field more frequently. People use land more intensively: to produce higher yields, they work the land harder. In sum, compared with horticulture, intensive agriculture is more productive per unit of land. But making these investments requires lots of labor and social mechanisms to coordinate the work. The development of intensive farming eventually had dramatic cultural consequences in many regions. Far more than either foragers or horticulturalists intensive farmers can produce a surplus over and above their own subsistence (food) requirements. Excess food can be traded or sold for other useful products like pottery tools wood and clothing. The surplus production of intensive farmers is traded, sold or taxed and supports people who do not them-selves do farm work such as rulers aristocracies, bureaucracies priests armies merchants and craft specialists. In some parts of the world within a few centuries after the development of intensive agriculture, the socially and politically complex organization we call civilization emerged. States are large-scale political systems featuring a ruler, a governing bureaucracy, class distinctions between the elite and common people, and methods of extracting labor and surplus products from those who are responsible for farming the land. The four major civilizations of the ancient Old World rested on the food produced by intensive farmers: the valley formed by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers of Mesopotamia, the Nile valley of Egypt, the Indus River valley of Pakistan, and the Shang cities of China. Intensive agriculture is a prerequisite for civilization. Civilizations created new cultural categories of individuals and social groups. Consider the terms peasant and aristocrat. Peasants live in the countryside produce mainly food have little power are relatively poor and are looked down on by higher classes. This payment of goods and labor by peasants to members of a more powerful social category continued into historic and modern times. The vast social and economic gap between classes called "elites" and "peasants" or "aristocrats" and "commoners" also grew wider with civilization. No matter where they developed, civilizations produced socioeconomic inequalities, which are widely considered to be one of the major costs of this form of human social and cultural existence. To be sure, civilization has its advantages: food surpluses made possible the specialized division of labor that led to writing, metallurgy, monumental architecture, cities, sophisticated transport and trade, and the great religious and artistic traditions we associate with civilization. Iron and other metals meant that peasants used better agricultural tools; yet for the most part such tools did not ease their labor, but led them to produce more surplus that others took from them. Most farming people keep domesticated animals. Southeast Asian and pacific horticulturalists raise many pigs and chickens. Intensive agriculturalists maintain livestock such as horses, oxen, water buffalo, and cattle which they use to pull their plows, fertilize their fields, and provide dairy products and meat. Farmers do not depend on their domesticated animals to the same extent or in the same way as do pastoralists or herders. Farmers raise livestock they generally grow crops especially for their animals or maintain fallow fields on which their animals graze. Livestock rely on grassy pasturelands that grow naturally in their territories. So most pastoralists migrate two or more times a year. This seasonal mobility called nomadism, is one of the defining features of the pastoral way of life. Their migration often are vertical meaning that they take their livestock to highland areas or mountain pastures to graze during the hottest season of the year. Seasonal movement up-and down-slope according to the productivity of pasturelands is called transhumance. The Sami People of northern Europe keep reindeer, which eat the sparse tundra vegetation and incorporate it into flesh and milk that is eaten by their owners. Another advantage of keeping livestock is their mobility. Not only do animals store meat on the hoof, but they also can be traded or sold to neighboring people for cultivated foods. They engage in trade and market sale, relying on such exchanges for a considerable portion of their livelihood. They sell or trade wool, hides and leather, milk, and meat to neighboring farmers or at local marketplaces. Aridity, temperature short growing seasons, and other ecological and climatic factors go a long way toward explaining why pastoralists live where and how they do. British anthropologists defined a culture area known as the "East African cattle complex" In this complex, found throughout the East African savannas cattle are more than an ordinary source of food. The East African man loves his cattle like many North Americans loved their sports utility vehicles before the financial collapse and energy crises of 2008-2009. The proud Maasai, however look down on cultivation because their herds represent wealth and are the main symbol of their cultural identity relative to their neighbors. Main benefit of pastoralism is that it allows large numbers of people to live well in regions that are unsuitable or marginal for farming. It summarizes how hunter gatherers horticulturalists intensive agriculturalists, and pasoralists acquire their food supply and how doing so broadly affects the organization of communities, the allocation of natural resources and the internal differentiation of society of social and economic distinctions that exist within a given community.