Test 2
Counseling 260 with Jacobs at Michigan State University
About this deck
By: Becca Toth
Created: 2010-10-20
Size: 181 flashcards
Views: 39
Created: 2010-10-20
Size: 181 flashcards
Views: 39
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Self concept
an organized collection of beliefs (schemas) about the self
-developed from past experiences
-can influence future behavior
-related to personality traits
-developed from past experiences
-can influence future behavior
-related to personality traits
Self-Discrepancies
gap between what people would like to see in themselves and what they actually see
effects of self-descrepancies depend on:
amount of descrepancy
awareness of it
importance of it to you
awareness of it
importance of it to you
How to deal with self-descrepancies
changing behavior
don't focus on them
blunting self-awareness
don't focus on them
blunting self-awareness
Types of Selves
ought self
ideal self
actual self
ideal self
actual self
Ought self
qualities people think they should posses
Ideal self
qualities people would like to have
actual self
qualities people think they actually posses
Social Comparison theory
we compare ourselves with others in order to assess our abilities/opinions
Reference Group
set of people used as a gauge to make social comparisons
Upward social comparison
motivate, direct future efforts
downward social comparisons
make us feel better about ourselves
Feedback from others
early in life, parents and family members are main source
middle life, friends/peers start to become important
later in life, close friends and marriage partners play dominant roles
middle life, friends/peers start to become important
later in life, close friends and marriage partners play dominant roles
Individualism
putting personal goals ahead of group goals
Collectivism
putting group goals ahead of personal groups
Self Esteem
one's overall assessment of one's worth as a person
Trait self-esteem
ongoing sense of confidence people have regarding their abilities
State self-esteem
how we feel about ourselves in the moment
Development of self-esteem
parents play an important role
parental acceptance and parental control are important
parental acceptance and parental control are important
Authoritarian parenting
low acceptance, high control
Authoritative parenting
high acceptance, high control
Neglectful
low acceptance, low control
Permissive
High acceptance, low control
Narcissism
tendency to regard oneself as grandiosely self-important
-are pathological, preoccupied with fantasies of success
-are pathological, preoccupied with fantasies of success
Self-Perception
cognitive processes
self-attributions
explanatory style
self-understanding
self-enhancement
self-attributions
explanatory style
self-understanding
self-enhancement
Cognitive processes
automatic processing-> mindlessness
-default mode, can lead to rigid thinking
Controlled Processing-> mindfulness
-uses more cognitive resources, can lead to acceptance
-default mode, can lead to rigid thinking
Controlled Processing-> mindfulness
-uses more cognitive resources, can lead to acceptance
Self Attributions
inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior
3 dimensions
Internal vs. external causes
stability of cause
control
3 dimensions
Internal vs. external causes
stability of cause
control
Internal causes of Self attributions
causes of behavior are due to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, and feelings
External causes of self attributions
causes of behavioral are due to situational demands and environmental constraints
Stability of Cause
stable: unlikely to change over time (laws)
unstable: subject to change (mood)
unstable: subject to change (mood)
Explanatory style:
tendency to use similar causal attributions for varied events in one's life
Optimistic
attribute setback to external, unstable, and specific factors
-may lead to positive expectations
-may lead to positive expectations
Pessimistic
attribute setbacks to internal, stable, and global factors
-may foster passive behavior
-may foster passive behavior
Seeking Self-Understanding (4)
self assessment
self verification
self improvement
self enhancement
self verification
self improvement
self enhancement
Self Enhancement
Downward social comparison
self serving bias
basking in reflected glory
self handicapping
self serving bias
basking in reflected glory
self handicapping
downward social comparison
a defensive tendency to compare oneself with someone whose troubles are more serious than one's own
Self serving bias
tendency to attribute one's successes to personal factors and one's failures to situational factors
basking in reflected glory
tendency to enhance one's image by publicly announcing one's association with those who are successful
Self handicapping
tendency to sabotage one's performance to provide an excuse for possible failures
Self regulation
proces of directing and controlling behavior
-limited amount of self regulation resources
-impression management
-limited amount of self regulation resources
-impression management
Impression management
generally conscious efforts by people to influence how others think of them
Self-defeating behaviors
seemingly intentional actions that thwart a person's self-interest
3 categories
deliberate self destruction (most but not all suffer from psychological disorders)
tradeoffs (see the possibility of harm but accept it as necessary)
counterproductive strategies (pursue desirable goals with misguided strategies)
tradeoffs (see the possibility of harm but accept it as necessary)
counterproductive strategies (pursue desirable goals with misguided strategies)
Emphasis on Physical attractiveness
-attractiveness is importnat factor in dating, friendships
-heterosexuals and homosexuals do not differ in importance of physical characteristics
-heterosexuals and homosexuals do not differ in importance of physical characteristics
What makes someone attractive?
unattractive face over an unattractive body
emphasis on thinness
attractiveness pressure links to increased rate of cosmetic surgery
appears to be more valued in women
emphasis on thinness
attractiveness pressure links to increased rate of cosmetic surgery
appears to be more valued in women
Attractive facial features in women & body type
face: baby face- large eyes prominent cheekbones, small nose
body: hour glass figures, medium sized breasts
body: hour glass figures, medium sized breasts
Attractive facial features in men & body types
face: strong jaw and broad forehead
body: broad shoulders, slim waists and legs, small butt
body: broad shoulders, slim waists and legs, small butt
Matching hypothesis
people with similar levels of attractiveness gravitate toward each other
Parental investment theory
maintians that species mating patterns depend on what each sex has to invest
Male reproductive potential is maximized by:
mating with as many women as possible
Females can optimize reproductive potential by:
selectively mating with reliable partners who have greater material resources
Recirprocal liking
liking those who show they like you too
Similarity in dating
Demographic characteristics (age, religion, education, etc)
physical attractiveness
intelligence
attitudes
personality
physical attractiveness
intelligence
attitudes
personality
Attitude alignment
enhances additional similarity
Desirable personality characteristics
-college students ranked highest qualities desired in marriage partner as good personality
-other qualities: warmth, friendliness, good sense of humor, social assertiveness
-personal qualities generally rated higher than physical characteristics for long term relationships
-other qualities: warmth, friendliness, good sense of humor, social assertiveness
-personal qualities generally rated higher than physical characteristics for long term relationships
Relationship maintenance
the actions and activites used to sustain the desired quality of a relationship
Strategies included in relationship maintenance
positivity
openness
assurances
social networking
sharing tasks
joint activities
mediated communication
avoidance
openness
assurances
social networking
sharing tasks
joint activities
mediated communication
avoidance
Minding
an active and ongoing process that involves continuing mutual self disclosure and maintaining relationship-enhancing beliefs and attributions about one's partner
High degree of minding involves:
using good listening skills, having detailed knowledge about your partner's opinions, making generally positive attributions for your partner's behaviors, etc
Low degree of minding involves:
lack of interest in your partner's self-disclosures, generally negative attributinos for your partner's behavior, etc.
Interdependence (social exchange) theory
postulates that interpersonal relationships are governed by perceptions of the rewards and costs exchanged in interactions
-model predicts that relationship will last as long as rewards as perceived to out weigh negatives
-based on Skinner's principle of reinforcement
-research findings generally agree with theory
-model predicts that relationship will last as long as rewards as perceived to out weigh negatives
-based on Skinner's principle of reinforcement
-research findings generally agree with theory
Comparison Level
personal standard of what constitutes an acceptable balance of rewards and costs in a relationship
Comparison level for alternatives
one's estimation of available outcomes from alternative relationships
Investments
things that people contribute to a relationship that they can't get back (time)
Exchange relationships
those with strangers, acquaintances, co-workers
communal relationships
those with close friends, lovers, and family members
Initial encounters in relationships
3 factors
-proximity
-familiarity
-physical attractiveness
-proximity
-familiarity
-physical attractiveness
proximity
we are more likely to become acquainted with, and attracted to those who live, work, or play nearby
familiarity
"mere exposure effect" increase of positive feelings toward a person due to frequent exposure
Resource Exchange theory
proposes that in heterosexual dating, males trade occupational status for physical attractiveness in females
Getting acquainted in relationships
Desirable characteristics:
-good overall
-kind
-honest
-trustworthy
-compassionate
Comparison level
personal standard of what is an acceptable balance of rewards and costs
comparison level for alternatives
estimation of available outcomes from alternative relationships
rules of friendships
share news of success
show emotional support
volunteer help in time of need
strive to make a friend happy when in each other's company
trust and confide in each other
stand up for a friend in his or her absence
show emotional support
volunteer help in time of need
strive to make a friend happy when in each other's company
trust and confide in each other
stand up for a friend in his or her absence
Common Themes in friendship
self disclosure, affection, support
shared activities
fun and recreation
shared activities
fun and recreation
Sexual Orientation
a person's preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same, other, or either gender
-heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual
-heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual
Research suggests:
men hold more romantic beliefs like "love lasts forever"
Men fall in love more easily while women fall out of love more easily
women are more likely to say they would marry someone they didn't love
women more likely report physical symptoms "floating on a cloud" and more likely to verbalize and display tender emotions
Men fall in love more easily while women fall out of love more easily
women are more likely to say they would marry someone they didn't love
women more likely report physical symptoms "floating on a cloud" and more likely to verbalize and display tender emotions
Person Perception
the process of forming perceptions of others
5 key sources of person perception
appearance
verbal behavior
actions
nonverbal messages
situations
verbal behavior
actions
nonverbal messages
situations
Snap judgements
based on a few bits of information and preconceptions
made quickly
may be inaccurate
made quickly
may be inaccurate
Systematic judgments
involve taking time to observe the person in varied situations
behavior is compared to that of others
behavior is compared to that of others
Attributions
3 dimensions
-internal/external
-stable/unstable
-controllability/uncontrollability
-internal/external
-stable/unstable
-controllability/uncontrollability
Attributions are most likely made when...
when other behave in unexpected ways
when events are personally relevant
motives for behavior are suspicious
when events are personally relevant
motives for behavior are suspicious
Confirmation Bias
tendency to seek information which supports one's beliefs
does not seek to find information which may disconfirm one's beliefs
does not seek to find information which may disconfirm one's beliefs
Self fullfilling prophecy
expectations about a person cause the person to behave ways that confirm the expectations
3 steps:
-perceiver has initial impressions of someone (target)
-perceiver behaves (toward target) in a way that is consistent with expectations
-target person adjusts behavior to perceiver's actions
3 steps:
-perceiver has initial impressions of someone (target)
-perceiver behaves (toward target) in a way that is consistent with expectations
-target person adjusts behavior to perceiver's actions
Social Categorizations
ingroup vs. outgroup
-less favorable attitudes towards outgroup
seen as distinctive
-less favorable attitudes towards outgroup
seen as distinctive
Stereotypes
widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group
based on: gender, age, ethnicity, physical appearance
based on: gender, age, ethnicity, physical appearance
Fundamental Attribution error
tendency to explain other people's behavior as a result of personal factors
NOT STEREOTYPING
NOT STEREOTYPING
Defensive attribution
blame victims for their misfortune, so one feels less likely to be victimized the same way
efficiency
people prefer to use minimal cognitive efforts and time
selectivity
people see what they expect to see
consistency
Primacy effect: initial information carries more weight
prejudice
a negative attitude toward members of a group
discrimination
behaving differently (usually unfairly), toward members of a group
Modern Discrimination
people may hold negative attitudes toward minority groups, but only express them when they fell safe or justified
Persuasion
communication of arguments and information intended to change another person's attitudes
Attitudes
beliefs and feelings about people, objects, ideas
Elements of Persuasion
source is the person who sends communication
receiver is the person to whom the message is sent
message is the information transmitted by the source
channel is the medium through which the message is sent
receiver is the person to whom the message is sent
message is the information transmitted by the source
channel is the medium through which the message is sent
Persuasion works because:
an individual's thoughts about a persuasive message (not the message itself) determine whether attitude change will occur
Conformity
when people yield to real or imagined social pressure
compliance
when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior even though their private beliefs have not changed
milgram obedience experiment
zapping people while hearing them scream...
people kept doing it
people kept doing it
Obedience
form of compliance when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority
Obedience is likely to occur when:
demands are escalated gradually
authority claims responsibility
subjects experience a shift in perspective, evaluate their actions on how well they are living up to expectations of authority figure
authority claims responsibility
subjects experience a shift in perspective, evaluate their actions on how well they are living up to expectations of authority figure
Foot in the door
getting someone to agree to a small request to increase the chance they'll agree to a larger one later
Lowball
getting someone to commit to an attractive propositions before it's hidden costs are revealed
Door in the face
making a large request that is likely to be turned down in order to increase the changes that people will agree to a smaller request later
Scarcity Principle
telling people they can't have something makes them want it more
Reactance
occurs when people want what they can't have
channels of communication
face to face
cell phone
email
txt
chat rooms
cell phone
txt
chat rooms
nonverbal communication
transmission of meaning from one person to another through meaningful symbols other than words
-conveys emotions
-is multichanneled
-ambiguous
-conveys emotions
-is multichanneled
-ambiguous
Proxemics
the study of personal space
Personal space
depends on the nature of the relationship and situation
social norms
how much you like the person (comfort)
status
gender
social norms
how much you like the person (comfort)
status
gender
face expressions
6 basic emotions recognized worldwide:
-anger
-disgust
-fear
-happiness
-sandess
-surprise
-anger
-disgust
-fear
-happiness
-sandess
-surprise
Eye contact
duration is the most meaningful
culture, gender, and racial differences
culture, gender, and racial differences
Body language
kinesics
provides information about person's tension
body posture: open or close
hand gestures: describe and emphasize spoken words
provides information about person's tension
body posture: open or close
hand gestures: describe and emphasize spoken words
kinesics
study of communication through body movement
Paralanguage
all vocal cues other than the content of the verbal meaning
-intensity
-speed
-vocalization
-loud vocals often indicate anger
-high pitch may indicate anxiety
-possible to assign meaning to voice quality that are incorrect
-intensity
-speed
-vocalization
-loud vocals often indicate anger
-high pitch may indicate anxiety
-possible to assign meaning to voice quality that are incorrect
Benefits of nonverbal behavior
good nonverbal communication skill are associated with:
good social adjustment
relationship satisfaction
good social adjustment
relationship satisfaction
nonverbal sensitivity
ability to accurately express and understand nonverbal cues
Lying is NOT associated with :
slow talking, long pauses, excessive shifting, reduced smiling, lack of eye contact
Lying appears to be associated with:
saying less, less compelling stories, making a negative impression, more tense, less unusual content
communication apprehension
anxiety caused by having to talk to others
Responses to communication
avoidance
withdrawal
disruption
over communication (excessive talking)
withdrawal
disruption
over communication (excessive talking)
barrier to effective communication
defensiveness
motivational distortion (selective attention)
self-preoccupation
Game playing
motivational distortion (selective attention)
self-preoccupation
Game playing
Interpersonal conflict
when two or more people disagree
5 type of conflict
pseudoconflict
fact-based conflict
policy conflict
value based conflict
ego based conflict
fact-based conflict
policy conflict
value based conflict
ego based conflict
pseudoconflict
false conflict from game playing
fact based conflict
disagreement about facutal issues
policy conflict
disagreement about how to handle a situation
value-based conflict
disagreement that occurs when people hold opposing values
ego based conflict
emphasis on WINNING over RESOLVING the conflict
Managing conflict
2 dimensions
-interest in satisfying one's own concerns
-interest in satisfying other's concerns
-interest in satisfying one's own concerns
-interest in satisfying other's concerns
5 styles of conflict
avoiding/withdrawing
accommodating
competing/forcing
compromising
collaborating
accommodating
competing/forcing
compromising
collaborating
stage 1 of relationship
initial encounter
Proximity
we are more likely to become acquainted with, and attracted to, those who live, work, or play nearby
familiarity
"mere exposure effect" (increase of positive feelings toward a person due to frequent exposure)
Physical attractiveness
facial features
physique
physique
Facial features for women
baby faced; large eyes, small nose, prominent cheekbones
Facial features for men
strong jaw bone and broad forehead
physique; men
broad shoulders, slim waist
physique; women
average weight, an hourglass figure, medium sized breasts
Matching hypothesis
proposes that people of similar levels of physical attractiveness gravitate toward each other
Resource exchange theory
proposes that in heterosexual dating, males trade occupational status for physical attractiveness in females
For men, reproductive opportunities are most important...
so they show more interest in sexual activity and physical attractiveness
Parental investment theory
women choose mates that will supply resources needed to support offspring for many years
Stage 2 in a relationship
getting acquainted
Reciprocal liking
like those hwo like you
Similarity (stage 2)
demographics (age, race, religion, education)
physical attractiveness
intelligence
attitudes
personality
physical attractiveness
intelligence
attitudes
personality
desirable characteristics
good overall
kind
honest
trustworthy
compassionate
kind
honest
trustworthy
compassionate
stage 3 in relationship
established relationship
Comparison level
personal standard of what is an acceptable balance of rewards and costs
Comparison level for alternatives
estimation of available outcomes from alternative relationships
Investments
things that people contribute to a relationship that they can't get back if a relationship ends
The rules of friendship
share news of success with a friend
show emotional support
volunteer help in time of need
strive to make a friend happy when in each other's company
trust and confide in each other
stand up for a friend in his or her absence
show emotional support
volunteer help in time of need
strive to make a friend happy when in each other's company
trust and confide in each other
stand up for a friend in his or her absence
Common themes of friendship
self disclosure; affection, support
shared activities
fun and recreation
shared activities
fun and recreation
Sexual orientation
a person's preference for emotional and sexual relationships with individuals of the same, other, or either gender
Heterosexual
homosexual
bisexual
Heterosexual
homosexual
bisexual
Research suggests:
men hold more romantic beliefs than women (love lasts forever)
men fall in love more easily than women
women fall out of love more easily
women are more likely to say they would marry someone they didn't love
women are more likely to report physical symptoms "floating on a cloud" and more likely to verbalize and display tender emotions
men fall in love more easily than women
women fall out of love more easily
women are more likely to say they would marry someone they didn't love
women are more likely to report physical symptoms "floating on a cloud" and more likely to verbalize and display tender emotions
Sternberg's triangular theory of love
passion intimacy commitment
passion
the intense feelings (positive and negative) experienced in love
intimacy
warmth, closeness, and sharing in a relationship
commitment
a decision and intent to maintain a relationship in spite of the difficulties and costs that may arise
Romantic love as an attachment
connection between attachment patterns early in life and three adult attachment types:
Secure adults
avoidant adults
anxious-ambivalent adults
Secure adults
avoidant adults
anxious-ambivalent adults
Passion in relationships fade over time, related to:
fantasy
novelty
arousal
novelty
arousal
Relationships end due to:
premature commitment
ineffective communication and conflict management skills
becoming bored with the relationship
availability of a more attractive relationship
ineffective communication and conflict management skills
becoming bored with the relationship
availability of a more attractive relationship
how to make a relationship last?
take time getting to know one another
emphasize positive qualities in your partner
find ways to bring novelty
develop effective conflict management skills
emphasize positive qualities in your partner
find ways to bring novelty
develop effective conflict management skills
Median age for marriage
women: 25.8
men: 27
men: 27
Top reasons for divorce:
communication problems: followed by basic unhappiness, incompatibility, emotional abuse, financial problems, sexual problems
increased acceptance of singlehood
cohabitating is on the rise
increased acceptance of singlehood
cohabitating is on the rise
Monogamy
the practice of having only one spouse at a time
polygamy
the practice of having more than one spouse at a time
endogamy
the tendency of people to mary within their own social group
homogamy
the tendency of people to marry others who have similar personal characteristics
stimulus-value-role
three stages of progress towards marriage:
stimulus value
value comparison
role stages
stimulus value
value comparison
role stages
vulnerable areas
gaps in role expectations
work and marital adjustment
parents' work and children's development
financial difficulties
inadequate communication
work and marital adjustment
parents' work and children's development
financial difficulties
inadequate communication
Divorces during the first decade of marriage are usually due to:
infidelity
jealousy
growing apart
foolish spending behavior
drinking and drug abuse
communication difficulties
jealousy
growing apart
foolish spending behavior
drinking and drug abuse
communication difficulties
After a divorce, many exhibit:
depression and/or anxiety
nightmares, dependency
aggression, withdrawal, or distractibility
lowered academic performance
reduced physical health
precocious sexual behavior
substance abuse
nightmares, dependency
aggression, withdrawal, or distractibility
lowered academic performance
reduced physical health
precocious sexual behavior
substance abuse
Divorce rates are _______ for second , rather than first, marriage
higher
Gay relationships
estimated that about 5-8% of population is homosexual
half of americans still condemn homosexual relations as morally wrong
half of americans still condemn homosexual relations as morally wrong
homophobia
irrantionl fear of homosexuals
Misconceptions
homosexuals adopt traditional gender roles in union
homosexual individuals rarely get involved in long term, intimate, relationships
homosexual individuals rarely get involved in long term, intimate, relationships
About this deck
By: Becca Toth
Created: 2010-10-20
Size: 181 flashcards
Views: 39
Created: 2010-10-20
Size: 181 flashcards
Views: 39
About StudyBlue
STUDYBLUE makes things that make you better at school.
Things like online flashcards with photos and audio.
Things like personalized quizzes and friendly reminders about when (and what) to study next.
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STUDYBLUE exists to make studying efficient and effective for every student, for free. Join us.
“I have been getting MUCH better grades on all my tests for school. Flash cards, notes, and quizzes are great on here. Thanks!”
Kathy
Kathy