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Bio 150 Study Guide (2016-17 Keck)
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- University of Tennessee - Knoxville
- Biology
- Biology 150
- Keck
- Bio 150 Study Guide (2016-17 Keck)
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To answer questions about life, biologists use the scientific method, which involves hypotheses, predictions, and experiments. Which statement most accurately summarizes the relationship among these three elements?
A hypothesis is a proposed answer to a tightly focused question; a prediction is a specific claim that follows
from a hypothesis and that can be tested in an experiment.
At first thought, and to naïve or disingenuous observers, living organisms seem to violate the second law of
thermodynamics. However there is no “violation” of the second law because:
Living organisms maintain order through continual inputs of energy.
All three domains (Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya) follow the same genetic code. Which of the following statements
would most likely be accurate given that information?
The genetic code evolved before the different domains diverged.
Which of the following processes results in adaptation?
A. Mutation B. Natural selection C. Genetic drift D. Migration E. Nonrandom mating
B. Natural selection
Mutation is the only evolutionary mechanism that _____.
does little to change allele frequencies
Quaking aspen can send out underground stems for asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction is not as common but
when it does happen the haploid gametes have 19 chromosomes. How many chromosomes are in the cells of the
underground stems?
38
The gametes of a species of roundworm contain 5 chromosomes. How many genetically distinct gametes can this
organism produce as a consequence of independent assortment?
A. 5 B. 25 C. 32 D. 50 E. 64
C. 32
2^5=32
What is the major difference between meiosis II and mitosis?
Meiosis II takes place in a haploid cell, while mitosis takes place in diploid cells.
What is a major difference between mitosis and meiosis I?
Sister chromatids separate in mitosis, and homologues separate in meiosis I.
What is another important difference between mitosis and meiosis?
Meiosis can only occur in cells that are diploid (or have higher ploidy).
Mitosis can occur in haploid as well as diploid cells.
The exchange of genetic material between chromatids of homologous chromosomes occurs during
prophase I
The appropriate unit for defining and measuring genetic variation is the:
population
Some cells have several nuclei per cell. How could such multinucleated cells be explained?
The cell underwent repeated mitosis, but cytokinesis did not occur
Homologous chromosomes are separated during:
anaphase I
Sister chromatids separate during:
anaphase II and mitosis
Darwin and Wallace's theory of evolution by natural selection was revolutionary because it _____.
dismissed the idea that species are constant and emphasized the importance of variation and change in
populations
Over the past several decades, natural selection has caused populations of Staphylococcus aureus (an infectious
wound bacterium) to evolve resistance to most antibiotics. If antibiotic use were stopped, what would you predict would
happen to these S. aureus populations?
The frequency of nonresistant forms will increase in these populations.
Starting from the wild mustard Brassica oleracea, breeders have created the strains known as Brussels sprouts,
broccoli, kale, kohlrabi, and cabbage. Which of the following statements is supported by this observation?
In this species, there is enough heritable variation to create a variety of features.
The Hardy-Weinberg principle is useful because:
it identifies those factors that can change allele or genotype frequencies
In a sexually reproducing population of spiders there are four alleles for coloration of the markings on the body: R
(frequency 0.4), Y (frequency 0.3), B (frequency 0.2), and P (frequency 0.1). What is the expected frequency of
heterozygotes in this population?
0.30
1-(0.4^2+0.3^3+0.2^2+0.1^2)=1-0.3=0.7
What is the expected frequency of genotypes carrying the P allele in the above population?
0.19
Following a flood, migration from neighboring populations alters genotypic frequencies of a population of river-bottom
midges. Assuming that the conditions for Hardy–Weinberg subsequently are met, how many generations of random
mating are required to restore the genotypic frequencies to Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium?
1
Natural selection operates primarily at the level of:
A. genes. B. individuals. C. populations. D. communities. E. ecosystems.
B. individuals
Due to various causes, including DDT poisoning, the population size of whooping cranes was reduced to about a
dozen during the 1970s. The population size has since rebounded, and there are now hundreds of whooping cranes.
Which of the following would you not expect to see in whooping cranes?
Considerable genetic polymorphism
Which of the following is the most predictable outcome of increased gene flow between two populations?
decreased genetic difference between the two populations
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder in homozygous recessives that causes death during the teenage years. If 9 in
10,000 newborn babies have the disease, what are the expected frequencies of the dominant (A1) and recessive (A2)
alleles according to the Hardy-Weinberg model?
f(A1) = 0.9700, f(A2) = 0.0300
When nonrandom mating occurs in a population so that individuals prefer to mate with similar individuals, allele
frequencies should
Remain the same, but homozygotes will be overrepresented in the population.
Biomedical research into human diseases and disorders relies extensively on non-human animal models – everything
from nematodes and fruit flies to mice and monkeys. Transference of research findings to the treatment of human
conditions is in large measure dependent on:
Analogous organs and organ systems in humans and research organisms
Which of the following statements best describes the rationale for applying the principle of parsimony in constructing
phylogenetic trees?
Similarity due to common ancestry should be more common than similarity due to convergent evolution.
Some birds follow moving swarms of army ants in the tropics. As the ants march along the forest floor hunting insects
and small vertebrates, birds follow and pick off any insects or small vertebrates that fly or jump out of the way of the ants.
What is the specific benefit relationship?
Birds benefit from the association but have no impact on the ants.
People with at least one copy of the HLA-B53 gene are better able to beat back malarial infections before the infection
progresses. If this is a coevolutionary arms race between Plasmodium and humans, what would the next step in this race
be?
to see Plasmodium populations that counter the HLA-B53 gene
A frog that lacks chemical defenses, yet resembles a poison arrow frog, would exhibit:
A. Batesian mimicry.
B. mutualism.
C. camouflage.
D. Müllerian mimicry.
E. Aposematic coloration
a. Batesin mimicry
Parasitism is one of the most widespread life strategies ever to evolve. Which of the following is consistent with this
finding?
Parasites do not generally kill their hosts, thus they can feed on the same host throughout the host's normal life
span and do not have competition from decomposers.
If two species are close competitors, and one species is experimentally removed from the community, the remaining
species would be expected to _____.
expand its realized niche
you notice that each species seeks prey at dawn in areas without the other species. However, where their ranges overlap, the twospot avenger beetle hunts at night and the three-spot hunts in the morning. When you bring them into the laboratory and isolate the two different species, you discover that the offspring of both species are found to be nocturnal. You have discovered an example of _____.
resource partitioning
Bird guides once listed the myrtle warbler and Audubon's warbler as distinct species. Recently, these birds have been
classified as eastern and western forms of a single species, the yellow-rumped warbler. Which of the following pieces of
evidence, if true, would be cause for this reclassification?
The two forms interbreed often in nature, and their offspring have good survival and reproduction.
A small number of birds arrive on an island from a neighboring larger island. This small population begins to adapt to
the new food plants available on the island, and their beaks begin to change. About twice a year, one or two more birds
from the neighboring island arrive. These new arrivals _____.
tend to retard adaptation to the new food plants
Which of the following statements is consistent with the principle of competitive exclusion?
Even a slight reproductive advantage will eventually lead to the elimination of the less well adapted of two
competing species.
A biological “arms race” occurs when _____.
there is a repeating cycle of reciprocal adaptation
Why can't a female lizard have both high fecundity and high survival?
The more energy the female devotes to offspring, the less that can be devoted to her survival.
Which of the following is primarily responsible for limiting the number of trophic levels in most ecosystems?
Energy transfer between trophic levels is usually less than 20 percent efficient.
Which statement best describes what ultimately happens to the chemical energy that is not converted to new biomass
in the process of energy transfer between trophic levels in an ecosystem?
It is eliminated as feces or is dissipated into space as heat, consistent with the second law of thermodynamics.
Keystone predators can maintain species diversity in a community if they _____.
prey on the community's dominant species
Why are food chains relatively short?
Longer chains are less stable and energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient.
Islands are well known for having many endemic species. What is a likely explanation for this pattern?
Islands are often distant from mainlands and therefore island species cannot emigrate to other areas.
Use of DNA sequences to study prokaryote phylogeny is complicated by:
Genetic recombination that is independent of reproduction and lineage.
Biologists divide living organisms into two groups: autotrophs and heterotrophs. How do these two groups differ?
They use different sources of carbon.
What is the source of energy for chemolithotrophs?
A. Organic molecules
B. Inorganic molecules
C. Organic molecules or inorganic molecules
D. Electromagnetic radiation or inorganic molecules
E. Electromagnetic radiation or organic molecules
B. Inorganic molecules
What is the source of carbon for chemolithotrophs?
A. Organic molecules
B. Inorganic molecules
C. Organic or inorganic molecules
C. Organic or inorganic molecules
An ecosystem based on chemolithoautotrophs exists 2,500 meters below the ocean surface near the Galápagos
Islands. These archaea
oxidize inorganic substances for energy and use carbon dioxide for carbon.
An achlorophyllous plant, such as one that is parasitic on fungi, is a:
chemoorganoheterotroph
Genetic recombination in prokaryotes:
involves processes unrelated to reproduction
Which of the following statements is consistent with the three domain phylogenetic hypothesis?
Archaea and Eukarya are sister clades.
Multicellularity and large body size of eukaryotic organisms requires high metabolic rates and efficient ATP production
by aerobic respiration. How did bacteria change Earth's atmosphere to enable aerobic respiration?
Oxygenic photosynthesis by cyanobacteria significantly increased the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere.
Which statements about carrying capacity are correct?
I: K varies among populations.
II: K varies in space
III: K varies in time.
IV: K is constant for any given species.
I, II, and III
As N (population size) approaches K for a certain population, which of the following is predicted by the logistic
equation?
The growth rate will approach zero.
If a fat soluble molecule such as PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) was present in the tissues of a plant at a
concentration of 0.01 parts per million (ppm), what would you expect the approximate concentration of PCBs in the
tissues of a quaternary consumer to be?
100 ppm
Approximately how many kilograms of carnivore (tertiary consumer) biomass can be supported by a field plot
containing 1000 kg of plant material?
1
What is the primary limiting factor that determines why no female animal can produce a very large number of very
large eggs?
There are energy constraints.
In which of the following pairs would you expect to find the largest number of homologous characters?
1. Boreal forest mammals of North America and boreal forest mammals of Eurasia.
2. Insects of North American temperate deciduous forests and insects of North American boreal forests.
3. Mammals of the Namibian desert of Africa and mammals of the Sonora Desert of North America.
What is the limiting portion of the nitrogen cycle for plants?
nitrogen fixation by bacteria
Which of the following has the greatest effect on the rate of chemical cycling in an ecosystem?
the rate of decomposition in the ecosystem
What is the largest reservoir of carbon available to terrestrial primary producers?
atmosphere
Although the carbon dioxide concentration is increasing at a sustained annual rate of about 2 – 3 ppm per year, there
is a regular annual variation of about 6 ppm per year as recorded at monitoring stations in the northern hemisphere. What
causes this regular annual variation?
Seasonal variation in the ratio of photosynthetic uptake of carbon and release of carbon by respiration.
Which of the following statements about the nitrogen cycle is incorrect?
Nitrogen is rarely limiting in terrestrial systems.
Which of the following statements about biogeochemical cycles is not true?
Most elements remain longest in the biotic portion of their cycle.
5 major learning objectives
evolution, structure and function, information flow and storage, transformations of energy and matter, and systems.
Five major learning objectives:
1. Evolution: Populations of organisms have changed through time by both selective and non-selective processes.
2. Structure and Function: All living systems are made of structural components.
3. Information Flow and Storage: Information and signals are used within and among organisms to direct their functioning.
4. Transformations of Energy and Matter: All living things acquire, use, and release matter and energy for cellular / organismal functioning.
5. Systems: Living systems are interconnected, and interact on multiple levels.
what does dr keck study
ichthyology- the study of fish
Dr. Keck studies
Ichthyology
Dr. Keck studies
Ichthyology (fish)
What does Dr. Keck study
Fish
mechanisms of diversification answers what?
It answers why there are so many species
mechanisms of diversification answers what?
why are there so many species?
3 major axes of diversification
vicariance- when something splits up a species so they cant breed
trophic morphology- when species create new species
sexual selection- animals decide who to mate with
What is Ecology?
The study of organisms and their environment
How do humans fit into ecology?
Humans interact with ecosystem. We move animals, mess with bacteria, etc.
What percent of species has gone extinct?
over 95%
What are the current rates of extinction and speciation?
Over 15k species found each year, but they go extinct over 1000x faster than they are formed.
Is species discovery complete?
No, 1.8 million species have been described but there are 5-15 million species alive.
What are the benefits of diversity?
It provides ecosystem services and biological resources as well as spiritual and social benefits.
What are the parts of the scientific method?
Observation, question, hypothesis, prediction, conclusion
Deductive vs inductive reasoning
deductive- goes from general statement and then to specific conclusions
inductive- goes specific observations to broad generalizations
Correlation vs causation
just because two things correlate does not mean that they cause each other to be that way.
independent and dependent variables
the independent variable is the one that is being manipulated. the dependent variable is the one that is being effected by the independent variable
how do you assess the quality of information?
by citing sources
peer review and literature sources
peer review is when an expert reviews and critiques a paper. literature sources are literary sources used to create a report.
bias and pseudo science
bias is when there is prejudice for or against something or someone. pseudo science is something that is mistaken for science when it has nothing scientific about it.
genotype vs phenotype
genotype your heritable genetic identity, and phenotype is your physical characteristics.
basic structure of DNA
a double helix held together by hydrogen bonds between the complementary base pairs of adenine and thymine and guanine and cytosine
Transcription vs translation
transcription makes copy of information in DNA which is copied (transcribed) to info in RNA. translation converts information held in nucleotide-based language of mRNA to amino acid-based language of proteins
DNA----(transcription)----mRNA----(translation)----Proteins
Chromosome
structures of nucleic acids and proteins in the nucleus that carry genetic info in the form of genes
What are genes and protein coding genes
gene is a unit of heredity transferred from parent to offspring and determines characteristics of offspring. protein coding genes is composed of exons, which code for protein
Introns and exons
Introns are parts of genes that do not directly code for proteins. exons are parts of DNA that are converted into messenger RNA (mRNA)
alternative splicing
Process by which a single pre-mRNA can be spliced in more than one way to produce different types of mRNA
genome
an organism's complete set of genetic instructions. each genome contains necessary info for an organism to grow and develop.
number of genes and size of genomes
size of genomes is total amount of DNA contained within one copy of single genome. this corresponds with C-value. There are 19000-20000 protein coding genes
What is DNA
It is a self-replicating material present in all living organisms, and is the main constituent of chromosomes. it carries genetic information
Standing variation, or phenotypic variability
important for many aspects of evolution and
ecology. This variability arises through genetic
mutation
Point mutations: silent, nonsense, etc. Do they occur at the same rate throughout the genome?
rates of mutations vary by genes, but only by a few % every million years.
transitions vs transversions
Transition mutation: purine to purine
Purine nucleotides:(adenine, guanine)
Pyrimidine to pyrimidine
Pyrimidines:(thymine, cytosine)
Transversion mutation:
Purine to pyrimidine or pyrimidine to purine
Ex. (adenine to cytosine)
Phenotypic change: can a point mutation cause a
large phenotypic change or only small
incremental changes?
Point mutations are single base changes, that do not affect the reading frame; that is, the mutation only makes a single change in a single codon, and everything else is undisturbed. There are three types of point mutation:
Silent Mutation: There is a base change, but the new codon means exactly the same thing as the old one; this is due to the degeneracy of the codon -> amino acid conversion code. There is no phenotypic change.
Missense Mutation: The mutation alters the meaning of the codon, so that the amino acid coded for is not the one that is supposed to be there. This could have no phenotypic effect, if the substituted amino acid was similar in character to the original; it might be a nonfunctional protein, or it could be a conditional lethal, where the protein works under normal conditions, but not in the same operating range as the original protein.
Nonsense Mutation: This mutation changes the codon to a stop codon, which prematurely ends translation when the mRNA transcript is being read by the ribosomes. This almost always results in a nonfunctional protein, because the latter chunk of it will be missing.
Crossing over: What is it? When does it occur?
What does it result in? Why might this be
beneficial?
Chromosomal crossover (or crossing over) is the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes that results in recombinant chromosomes during sexual reproduction.
The major advantage is that it creates a unique and new combination of genetic materials, i.e. you do not have exactly the same chromosome from either your father or mother. The chromosome from your father now contains small pieces of chromosomes from your mother after such exchange, and so does the maternal chromosome.
Having a new genetic combination is especially important for evolution because the environment is continuously changing, different sets of genetic materials are needed to cope with new environment. Old sets of genetic materials may not be optimal for new situations therefore the exchange maximizes the chance of survival of the species.
In addition, exchange of genetic material may be able to create individuals free of genetic defects if it is inherited in father's or mother's chromosome (by chance only). This is because after the exchange, the section which contains the defect maybe swapped with another chromosome therefore that particular chromosome does not contain the defect anymore.
Rates of reproduction for asexual vs. sexual organisms
asexual reproduce faster
A bad aspect of asexual reproduction
No genetic diversity between parents and offspring, offspring is parent’s clone = identical DNA as parent.
Only way for asexually reproducing species to get diversity is through mutations at DNA level. If there is a mistake at DNA level, then that mistake will be passed down.
Chromosomal mutation: duplication, deletion,
etc.
duplication: mutation which a portion of a genetic material or chromosome is duplicated or replicated, resulting in multiple copies of that region
deletion: mutation in which part of chromosome or sequence of DNA is lost during DNA replication, shortening or premature stop of DNA
insertion: mutation inserts base pair into DNA shifting to left or right by one base pair
Polyploid: what is it?
Containing more than two homologous sets of chromosomes
(AA or aa)
Alleles, gene pool, genetic variability
Alleles- a particular version of a gene
Gene pool- All the alleles of all the genes in a certain population
Genetic Variability- number and relative frequency of alleles present in a particular population;
describe the basic observations and principles of Darwin, and how evolution enables phylogenetic hypothesis
Darwin’s Observations:
Excessive Production- not every “fish egg” will survive
Standing Variation- not every individual will look the same
Darwin’s concept of evolution:
Principle of Variation: individualism a population vary in traits
Principle of Heredity: traits can be passed from generation to generation (parents look like offspring)
Principle of Survival: reproductive rates are too high to maintain population size and some individuals will die or fail to reproduce (possibility of selection)
How evolution enables phylogenetic hypotheses
Phylogenetics= estimating relationships
Phylogenies- show how things are related
Basic premise of phylogenetics is: some form of information contained in the organisms of interest can be used to infer relationships, or common ancestry.
be able to identify parts of a phylogeny, describe relationships among species, infer synapomorphies, identify ancestral and derived traits, and build a phylogeny based on information
A,B,C,D,E-: Species,Individual
Tips(present)----> Root (past)
Nodes where branches meet= most recent common ancestor (hypothetical)
Clades:monophyletic groups(groups of more closely related species compared to anything else)
Synapomorphy- morphological characteristics (clades of organism)
Taxonomy: explain why names are important and what they can tell us?
Taxonomy is a system that is used to classify organisms. It is important because the classification of organisms show the relationship between the organism and its contemporaries.
be able to describe convergent evolution and the phylogenetic pattern that you expect to see in an example
convergent evolution is the process whereby organisms not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.
applications and implications of hardy-weinberg theory
When gametes containing either of two alleles, A or a, unite at random to form the next generation, the genotype frequencies among the offspring are given by the ratio
p2 : 2pq : q2
this constitutes the Hardy–Weinberg (HW) Principle
p = frequency of a dominant allele A
q = frequency of a recessive allele a
p + q =1
One important implication of the HW Principle is that allelic frequencies will remain constant over time if the following conditions are met:
The population is sufficiently large
Mating is random
Allelic frequencies are the same in males and females
Selection does not occur = all genotypes have equal in viability and fertility
Mutation and migration are absent
Two pieces of information are needed
1. What is the frequency of alleles in the population?
2. What are the genotype frequencies?
Know how violations of Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium assumptions might influence allele frequencies
When Hardy Weinberg expected frequencies are not met, that tells us something about population dynamics.
For example -
The population is small and subject to drift and inbreeding
Selection is acting on the population
There is assortative mating
There is significant immigration or emigration
Types of selection and genetic variability within a population
Directional Selection:directional selection is a mode of natural selection in which an extreme phenotype is favored over other phenotypes, causing the allele frequency to shift over time in the direction of that phenotype.
Disruptive Selection: also called diversifying selection, describes changes in population genetics in which extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values.
Stabilizing Selection: a type of natural selection in which genetic diversity decreases and the population mean stabilizes on a particular trait value.
What is speciation?
offspring that look like parents
Speciation results in populations that diverged in some trait
Morphological
Pigmentation
Tail feathers
Eye size
Genetic
Unique alleles
Genome duplication
Anagenesis and Cladogenesis
Anagenesis- evolution within a lineage
Cladogenesis- evolution that results in a splitting of a lineage
Drift, Bottlenecks, Founder effects, and inbreeding
Drift- dependent on population size
Large population= slow genetic drift
Small population- fast genetic drift
Bottleneck- genetically diverse original population(catastrophic event occurs), population decreases, then the population expands again but genetically simplified
Founder Effects-the reduced genetic diversity that results when a population is descended from a small number of colonizing ancestors.
Inbreeding depression- harmful alleles are expressed at higher frequencies
Ex. dogs
Artificial and Natural selection: types and how these influence phenotypes (and be able to relate this to the allele frequencies above)
Artificial Selection- humans select traits to get products we like or are useful
Ex. Genetically modified (GMO); tomatoes that can withstand shipping/ long travel as well as color (bright red)
Ex.Atlantic Cod was almost gone b/c fishing cause fish to mature at a younger age, so the big fish genes were not added to the gene pool so the small fish were the ones being saved and reproduced
Competition reduced between big and small fish
Reduced genetic variability
Humans affected Atlantic Cod behavior
Population stays at bottom of water instead of swimming up and down
Natural Selection
Sexual Selection
Birds of Paradise
-feathers only for display; no function at all they are for looks
- females select on feather patterns/ display
-Selective Sweep
- Before Selection- genes different
- After Selection-Genes are similar
-genetic variability limited after selective pressure
Time to speciation: population divergence through time and how time relates to population size and strength of selection
- Not an event; long process
Punctuated equilibrium
- Dependent on population size large= slow
- weak, occasional, or variable selection= slow
- strong, constant selection= fast
Genetic isolation: Pre and Post mating prezygotic, postzygotic, allopatry, sympatry, and syntopy
Premating and Prezygotic: Isolation resulting from behavior,ecology, timing, etc.
Postmating and Prezygotic: Cryptic female choice through ovarian fluid
Post zygotic: Intrinsic due to aborted development or sterile offspring. Extrinsic due to ecology
Allopatry- occur when same species separate b/c of geographical barrier which prevents/ interferes with genetic interchange
Sympatry- two species or populations are considered sympatric when they exist in the same geographic area and thus regularly encounter one another.
Syntopy-It means the joint occurrence of two species in the same habitat at the same time.
Be able to describe the process of hybridization through introgression and/or hybrid speciation
The process of hybridization through introgression is when there is gene flow from one species to another by the repeated backcrossing of an interspecific hybrid with one of its parent species. Hybrid speciation is when there are two different species that reproduce to make a new species that are isolated from the parent species.
What are hybrid zones and what are the general outcomes
Hybrid zones are regions where genetically distinct populations meet and produce offspring of different ancestry. General outcomes of this are reinforcement, fusion, stability, and introgression
The relationship between hybrids/introgression and novel environments
Hybridization is required for introgression to take place. Hybrids have unique alleles that thrive in environments that the parents could not survive in.
Dobzhansky-Muller Incompatibilities: what they are and expected phylogenetic patterns
The Dobzhansky-Muller incompatibilities are that alleles and genomes can change over time in populations and may not be able to produce viable offspring due to mutation, and that the more distantly related the phylogenies the more unlikely they are to reproduce. The alleles should have distinct phenotypes in the two species
Known rates of hybridization and introgression discussed in class
Birds 10%
Eukaryotes 10-25%
Plants 10-30%
Just know roughly 10-20% of creatures in a species normally hybridize.
Introgression rates not known as well
Macroevolution
Macroevolution is a major evolutionary change that applies to the major evolution of entire taxonomic groups over a long period of time.
Constituent fields of biogeography
Geology, Paleontology, Phylogenetics, and Ecology
Biotic and abiotic determinants of a species’ range
Biotic has to do with exploiting a novel environment, dispersal, competition, and it has to do with living beings. Abiotic has to do with climate change, Eustatic events (sea level changing), tectonic events (continental shifting), has to do with non living things.
Ecological vs. Historical Biogeography
Ecological biogeography studies how animal species are distributed in relation to the environment (different environment). It looks at how processes that occur over short periods of time affect distributional patterns of organisms.
Historical biogeography studies how animals that are present in a geographical region today relate to the animals that lived there in the past (same environment but might not mix). It looks at how processes that occur over long periods of time (historical egologic, climatic, geologic conditions) influence the current patterns of geographic distribution
Dispersal and Vicariance
These are both patterns of allopatric speciation. Dispersal is the movement and colonization of a species into a new area. Vicariance is the separation of species by a geographical barrier.
Why might the distribution of the extant members of a clade of organisms be misleading when it comes to the origin or dispersal patterns of that group?
It can be misleading when it comes to the origin/dispersal patterns of that specific group because there may not be any transitional fossils to show where they originated and where they have migrated over time. (Marsupials example)
Review the Biogeography group activity
20 question worksheet
Extinction and Extirpation and Mass Extinction
Extinction is the complete end of a species. Functional extinction is when a species can no longer breed and recover. Extirpation is when a species goes locally extinct. Mass extinction is when more than 30% of all species goes extinct
Dodo bird example
Dodo bird- completely extinct because humans introduced pigs and rats that disturbed the dodo birds habitats
Dodo birds nested on ground and could not get away from the predators, the rats ate the dodo birds eggs
Snail Darter extirpation
These were minnow-like fish that lived in the TN river, and they now are extirpated from the TN river.
5 previous mass extinctions: names and hypothetical causes
Ordovician Event- Wiped out 50% of marine life because of a drop in sea level. Happened to continents in southern hemisphere.
Devonian Event- About 50% of genera was lost due to changes in sea level, oxygen, and eutrophication.
Permian Event- About 83% of genera was lost due to volcanoes, meteorites, and high oxygen levels.
Triassic Event- About 50% of genera was lost, mostly terrestrial. This was due to climate change and change in sea level which changed co2 levels.
Cretaceous-Paleogene Event- Took out 75% of species or 40% of genera. This was caused by a meteorite that most likely hit in Cancun. This could have caused volcanoes to erupt more often.
Does everything go extinct in a mass extinction?
At least 30% of species.
The Devonian was known as?
The Age of Fish
The Permian’s high oxygen levels allowed?
Plant life to flourish.
How could bias in the fossil record influence our understanding of prior mass extinctions?
How have meteorite impacts and increased volcanism been identified?
Meteorite impacts have been identified by the worldwide rock layers and the ashes from the impacts. Increased volcanism comes from these meteorite impacts.
The main reason there is often a burst of diversification after mass extinctions
There is less competition between species.
Adaptive radiations
Adaptive radiations are when species diversify rapidly from an ancestral species, usually due to a change in environment.
The sixth Mass extinction.
The Anthropocene Event. It is currently happening, and it is because humans are the main impact on the climate and environment.
Five major learning objectives: be able to relate these to scenarios or examples
1. Evolution:populations of organisms have changed through time by both selective and non-selective processes
Ex relating to this exam:Non-selective effects=genetic drift, selective effects=due to natural or artificial selection: frog developing a noise outside the spectrum of city noise over time to be able to communicate effectively
2.Structure and Function: all living systems are made of structural components
Ex relating to this exam: faster reproduction rate=small size, low energy, more offspring, early maturity, short life span; slower reproduction rate=larger size, more energy, less offspring, later maturity, longer life span.
3.Information Flow and Storage:information and signals are used within and among organisms to direct their functioning
Ex relating to this exam: butterfly developing pattern on wings mimicking a snake head pattern which deters predators, brightly colored insects/reptiles/amphibians are meant to show predators that they do not taste good
4.Transformations of Energy and Matter: all living things acquire, use and release matter and energy for cellular / organismal functioning
Ex relating to this exam:food webs, carbon/water cycle,
5.Systems: living systems are interconnected and interact on multiple levels
Ex relating to this exam:increased runoff into streams due to urbanization causes chemical changes in those streams which has a domino effect on many species, overfishing in open oceans led the killer whale to start eating sea otters in shallow water due to their main food source being depleted in the open ocean which in turn caused overpopulation of the sea urchens which led to the kelp forest being depleted
Definitions and scale of different ecological fields of study
1.Organismal Ecology-the study of individual organisms' behavior, physiology, morphology, etc. in response to environmental challenges
Scale: at several scales
2.Population Ecology-the dynamics of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment--density and growth, (demographics)
Scale: at several scalesQuestion asked:Why does it live in these areas? What are the resources it uses?
Predicts:New range, Invasion, Reintroduction
*****Example*** : Salmon migrate from saltwater to freshwater environments to breed
Question asked: How do populations grow?
Predicts: How populations will change
*****Example***: Each Salmon produces eggs, but only few will survive to reproduce
3.Community Ecology- species interactions
Scale: at several scales
Question asked: How do species interact, and what are the consequences?
Predicts: Consequences of changes to the community
*****Example***: Salmon are prey as well as predators
4.Ecosystem Ecology- cycling of energy and matter
Scale:several scales
Question asked: How does energy flow and how do nutrients cycle through the local environment?
Predicts: Predictive in dynamic (changing) systems
Ex. Food Web
5. Biosphere (Global) Ecology- Quantifies the effects of human impacts on the biosphere.
Scale:
Question asked: How is the biosphere affected by global changes in nutrient cycling and climate?
Predicts: global changes
Niche
role in the ecosystem
Competition
more than one species with the same or overlapping niches or when there are too many of one species
Latitude and Longitude
latitude- horizontal, equator separates Northern and southern hemispheres
longitude- vertical, Prime Meridian separates Eastern and Western hemispheres
Climate Zones
dependent on temperature and precipitation (usually belt shaped across the globe, but it is circular around poles
Food webs
a system of interlocking and independent food chains
Population density and distribution
Population density: average number of individuals per unit of area or volume
Population Distribution: describes how the individuals are distributed, or spread throughout their habitat
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