BIO 201 Study Guide (2013-14 Washo-krupps) - Instructor Washo-krupps at Arizona State University

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Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function

Epidermal Cells reproduce in which layer?

Stratum Basale

layers of epidermis from superficial to deep

1. corneum

2.lucidum

3.granulosum

4. spinosum

5. basale

(cute little grandmas spin basal

label anatomical terms: anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, dorsal, ventral

anterior- towards head

Posterior- towards tail'

Medial- towards middle

Lateral- towards sides

Doral- back

Ventral- front

Anatomical position

standard position of reference for the description on anatomical structures;

-subject stands erect facing observer

-feet flat on the floor and directed forward

-upper limbs at the sides with the palms facing forward

Anatomical position

Supination

Anatomical Position

Person stands erect

Feet flat on floor

Arms at sides

Palms, eyes & face facing forward

What do tendons do?

o A flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous tissue attaching a muscle to a bone

Tendons

Are attachments between muscle & bone - dense regular connective tissue composed of collagen fibers - The epimysium surrounding the entire muscle is continuous with collagen fibers of tendons - Collagen is somewhat extensible and elastic - Stretches slightly under tension & recoils when released

Tendons

Attach muscle to bone Collagen fibers of endo-, peri-, and epimysium continue into the tendon From there the tendon merges into the periosteum of bone Very strong structural continuity from muscle to bone - Stress will tear the tendon before pulling it loose from either muscle or bone Biceps brachii, calcaneal (achilles) tendon

Tendon

Attaches muscle to bone

What do the ligaments do?

Help form a tight wrap around the joint

bind bone to bone

Ligament

Attaches bone to bone

What tissues make up the skin?

Epithelial and Connective

What makes up tissue?

A group of cells that each perform specific functions to accomplish a common task. The different cells work together on one job within an organized higher order structure.

Tissue

A mass of similar cells and cell products that forms a discrete region of an organ and performs a special function

What is a sagital section? How does it differ from midsagital section?

Divides the body into left and right portions.
A midsagital section divides the body into EQUAL left and right portions

What is a transverse cross-section?

A cross-section transversely through a body, slicing it into superior and inferior portions.

what is keratin?

a protein that creates toughness and waterproofs

*stratified squamous

Structural protein, gives strength to the nails, hair, and skin surface. It protect the epithelial cells from damage and stress that could kill the cells. it also helps with cells signaling and apoptosis. (intentional cell death)

What does melanin do?

produces skin/hair color, protects against UV rays, prevents DNA mutation

provides protection from radiation and give color to skin, hair, and iris of eyes

Melanin

Most significant factor in skin color. Produced by the melanocytes but accumulates in the keratinocytes of the stratum basale and stratum spinosum

where is epithelial tissue found?

outer skin; lines body cavities, tubes, ducts; covers organs. it's a surface tissue

epidermis, inner lining of digestive tract, liver, and other glands

Epithelial Tissue

Sheets of closely adhering cells, one or more cells think, with the upper surface usually exposed to the environment. Functions are protection, secretion, excretion, absorption, filtration, and sensation

What are characteristics of cardiac muscle tissue and where can it be found?

found only in the walls of the heart, striated, involuntary

Where is Connective tissue found?

Tendons/ligaments, blood, bone, cartilage, fat

Connective Tissue

The most abundant, widely distributed, and histologically variable of the primary tissues. Functions are binding of organs, support, physical protection, immune protection, movement, storage, heat production, and transport.

nervous tissue is found where?

brain

spinal cord

nerves

special sense organs

PNS

binds and protects organs

blood

cartilage

Nervous Tissue

Specialized for communication by means of electrical and chemical signals.

What do osteocytes do?

they monitor and maintain the bone matrix

What do osteoclasts do?

-Dissolve/breaks down bone

-Release calcium

what do osteoblasts do?

create bone from plasma Ca2+

build up the bone, bone forming cells

What is an open fracture?

open ends come through skin

What is a greenstick fracture?

incomplete fracture with one side splintered and the other side bent

what is a pott fracture?

a fracture of the DISTAL END OF THE lateral leg bone (FIBULA), with serious injury of the DISTAL TIBIAL articulation ((((notes say--> fracture of distal tibia, fibular, or both)))

What is a transverse fracture?

A bone that is broken straight across

fraction perpendicular to long axis of bone

image skin1323463234868-thumb for term side of card

increased length- but epiphyseal plate maintains constant thickness

cartilage division slows until plate converted entirely to bone (teens)

fractures through plate can impair growth

osteoblasts build up outside, osteoclasts break down inside

growth hormone regulate length and diameter

deposite = resorption bone mass/ strength stays same

deposite> resorption bone strengthens

deposite < resorption bone weakens, paralysis, osteoporosis, rickets

blood will win PTH osteoclasts, Calcitonin blasts

oppositional growth

new cartilage formed at surface or existing cartilage

derived from inner perichondrium

increase in bone width

growth in diameter of bones around the diaphysis occurs by deposition of bone beneath the periosteum

What is the sagittal relationship between compact and spongy bone?

the outer shell of dense white osseous tissue is called compact bone, usually covering loosely oragnized tissue called spongy bone

Spongy bones lies between two layers of the compact bone, and this helps contribute to bone strength in a long bone

Type of bones formed by endochondral ossification

2. Endochondral: cartilaginous bone formation; primary vs. secondary ossification centres; diaphysis/metaphysis/epiphysis.

process in which a bone develops from a pre existing model composed of byline cartilage

thick filaments

-contains 300 myosin molecules

-most are myosin molecules are composed of head, neck and tail domain

thin filaments

made of actin, troponin, tropomyosin

held by Z lines

6 Function of calcium in skeletal muscle contraction

When calcium ion concentration in sarcoplasm rises sharply, it binds to troponin, which causes change in tropomyosin molecule so that it no longer hinders the binding of myosin to actin; primed myosin molecule is free to attach to actin and generate power stroke

calcium binds to the troponin and causes it to rotate slightly which forms a cross bridge that drags along the actin fiber and it shortens it thus creating muscle fiber contraction

What makes up a neuromuscular junction?

Axon Terminals, the synaptic cleft, and the junctional folds of the sarcolemma

When the target cells in a muscle fiber the synapse is called the neuromuscular junction

Synaptic vesicles in the neuromuscular junction contain _________.

acetylcholine

What are Isometric Contractions?

muscle stays the same shape as tension develops

What are isotonic muscle contractions?

•muscle shortens, movement occurs

Isotonic Muscle Contraction

Muscle changes in length with no change in tension

What is an agonist(prime mover)?

directly produces a desired movement

Prime mover (agonist)

Muscle that produces most of the force during a joint action -Brachialis

Prime Mover (Agonist)

The muscle that produces most of the force during a particular joint action

What is the antagonist?

muscle that oppose/reverse a particular movement

-Triceps brachii is the antagonist of elbow flexion

Antagonist

Opposes the prime mover - relaxes to give prime mover control over an action

Antagonist

A muscle that opposes the prime mover

what is a fixator?

main function is to stabilize a joint

muscle that prevents a bone from moving.

Fixator

Muscles that prevents movement of the bone

What is the origin and insertion of a muscle?

· Origin The bony site of attachment at the relatively stationary end

· Insertion The attachment site at its more mobile end

what is a twitch?

single contraction/

relaxation

What is Wave Summation?

1)Occurs at stimulation freg of 20-40/sec.

2) T- results from 2 stimuli arriving close together.

3) W- results from 1 wave of contraction added to another.

4) piggy back the first wave

Wave Summation

Results from one wave of contraction added to another

what is a sacomere?

Functional contractile unit of muscle fiber, made up of thick and thin filaments

are composed of long, fibrous proteins that slide past each other when the muscles contract and relax. From Z disc to Z disc.

what is motor unit?

is the progressive activation of a muscle by successive recruitment of motor units to accomplish increasing gradations of contractile strength

What is a synapse

The gap between nerve fibers
Neurotransmitters travel through synapse from one nerve cell to another
Nerve ending where it sends out ongoing signals to other cells

What are all the parts of a neuron, and what do they do?

Dendrites- clusters of fibers that receive messages from other neurons {BRINGS INFO IN}

Axons- Carries messages received by dendrites to other neurons {TAKES INFO AWAY}

Terminal Buttons- sends messages to other neurons

Myelin Sheath- protective coat of fat and protein that wraps around axons

Soma- house of nucleus

Salvatory conduction

jump action potential from one ranvier to another

what external and internal charges at rest is?

Internal Charge between (-60mV and -80mV) around -70mV. More negative than exterior.

Where is white and grey matter located in the brain and spine?

White matter: is nerve fibers (axons). White matter forms the bulk of the deep parts of the brain and the superficial parts of the spinal cord.

Gray matter: is cell bodies; located at the cerebral cortex (the outer edge of the brain) and the centre of the spinal cord.

what makes up the CNS?

brain

brainstem

cerebellum

spinal cord

the cell bodies of somatic motor neurons are found where?

the ventral horns of the gray matter of the spinal cord

CNS

What are the components of the brain stem?

Medulla Oblingata

Pons

Midbrain

Reticular Formation

What are the functions of the following lobes of the brain:

Frontal
Parietal
Occipital

Frontal- Primary motor area, Sends impulses to skeletal muscles

Parietal- Primary somatic sensory area, Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors

Occipital vision

Sympathetic N.S.

• The sympathetic division is the “fight-or-flight” system

• Involves E activities – exercise, excitement, emergency, and embarrassment

• Promotes adjustments during exercise – blood flow to organs is reduced, flow to muscles is increased

• Its activity is illustrated by a person who is threatened

– Heart rate increases, and breathing is rapid and deep

– The skin is cold and sweaty, and the pupils dilate

What are the functions of the parasympathetic N.S.?

• Concerned with keeping body energy use low

• Involves the D activities – digestion, defecation, and diuresis

• Its activity is illustrated in a person who relaxes after a meal

– Blood pressure, heart rate, and respiratory rates are low

– Gastrointestinal tract activity is high

– The skin is warm and the pupils are constricted

What neurotransmitters are secreted from the cholinergic & adrenergic fibers

Cholinergic fibers – ACh-releasing fibers

•Adrenergic fibers – sympathetic postganglionic axons that release Norepinephrine

The neurotransmitters released from the preganglionic and postganglionic sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons are

Acetylcholine

• ACh is released by all preganglionic axons and all parasympathetic postganglionic axons.

Postganglionic

· In the parasympathetic division, neurons are cholinergic (that is, aceytecholine is the primary neurotransmitter.)

In the sympathetic division, neurons are mostly adrenergic (that is, epinephrine and norepinephrine function as the primary neurotransmitters.)

Preganglionic

All preganglionic fibers, whether they are in the sympathetic division or in the parasympathetic division are both cholinergic (that is, these fibers use acetylcholine as theirnerotransmitter.)

What is a synergist?

a muscle that contracts to stabilize nearby joints

a is a muscle that aids the prime mover

Synergist

Muscle that aids the prime mover -stabilizes the nearby joint - modifies the direction of movement - biceps brachii

Synergist

A muscle that aids the prime mover

How many human skeletal muscles?

600

How many kinds of muscle tissue? And what are they?

3 Kinds Skeletal Cardiac Smooth

What is their purpose

Converting the chemical energy in ATP into the mechanical energy of motion

Functions of the musle

Movement of whole body, body parts, and organ contents Stability- maintain posture and prevent movement Communication- speech, facial expressions & writing Control of openings and passageways- sphincters Body heat production

Fascia

Separates neighboring muscles or muscle groups from each other and the subcutaneous tissue Deep fascia- found between adjacent muscles Superficial fascia (hypodermis)- found between skin and muscles

Epimysium

Fibrous sheath surrounding the entire muscle Outer surface grades into the fascia

Perimysium

Surrounds fascicles- bundles of muscle fibers Carry larger nerves and blood vessels, and stretch receptors

Endomysium

Thin sleeve of loose connective tissue surrounding each muscle fiber (cell)

Fusiform Muscles

Thick in middle & tapered at ends - biceps brachii - gastrocnemius

Triangular (convergent) muscles

Broad at origin & tapering to a narrower insertion - pectoralis major - temporalis

Parallel Muscles

Parallel fascicles Can span longer distances

Circular muscles

Act as sphincters Ring around body opening Orbicularis oculi, urethral and arial sphincters

Pennate muscles

Fascicles insert obliquely on a tendon (feather shaped) Unipennate, bipennate, or multipennate Palmar

Direct (fleshy) attachment to bone

little separation between muscle and bone muscle seems to emerge directly from bone

Origin

Bony attachment at stationary end of muscle

Origin

The bony site of attachment at the relatively stationary end

Belly

Thicker, middle region of muscle between origin and insertion

InsertionBony

Bony attachment to mobile end of muscle

Action

The effects produced by a muscle - to produce or precent movement

Intrinsic muscles

contained within a region - both its origin and insertion there

Extrinsic muscles

act on a designated region, but has origins elsewhere

Responsiveness (excitability)

- to chemical signals, stretch and electrical changes across the plasma membrane

Conductivity

- Local electrical change triggers a wave of excitation that travels along the muscle fiber

Contractility

Shortens when stimulated

Extensibility

Elasticity

Skeletal muscle

voluntary, striated muscle attached to one or more bones

Skeletal Muscle

Most of it is attached to bones but there are exceptions in the tongue, upper esophagus, some facial muscles and some sphincters

Striations

alternation light and dark transverse bands - results from an overlapping of internal contractile proteins

Striations

Myosin and action are proteins that occur in all cells - function in cellular motility, mitosis, transport of intracellular material Organized in a precise way in skeletal and cardiac muscle - A band- dark- A strands for anisotropic - I band - Z disc - Sarcomere- the segment of the myofibril from one z disc to the next

Voluntary

usually subject to conscious control

Myofibers

are composed of myofibrils

myofibrils

long protein bundles that occupies the main portion of the interior of a muscle fiber

myofilaments

a protein microfilament responsible for muscle cell contraction

Sarcolemma

Plasma membrane of a muscle fiber

Sarcoplasm

Cytoplasm of a muscle fiber

Mitochondria

Packed in spaces between myofibrils

Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)

Smooth ER that forms a network around each myofibril- calcium reservoir

Terminal Cisternae

T tubules

Triad

Internal proteins (myofibers)

long protein bundles that occupy the main portion of the sarcoplasm

Glycogen (myofibers)

stored in abundance to provide energy with heightened exercise

Myoglobin (myofibers)

red pigment that stores oxygen needed for muscle activity

multiple nuclei (myofibers)

flattened nuclei pressed against the inside of the sarcolemma

myoblasts (myofibers)

stem cells that fuse to form each muscle fiber

satellite cells (myofibers)

unspecialized myoblasts remaining between the muscle fibers and endomysium

Thick filaments (myofilaments)

Made of several hundred myosin muscles - shaped like a golf club

Thin filaments (myofilaments)

Fibrous actin- two intertwined strands string of globular actin subunits each with an active site that can bind to head of myosin molecule Tropomyosin each blocking 6 or 7 active sites on G actin subunits Troponin complex- small, calcium-binding protein on each tropomyosin molecule

Elastic filaments (myofilaments)

Titin (connectin)- huge springy protein flank each thick filament & anchor it to the z disc help the cell recoil to its resting length keeps think & thin filaments aligned -helps stabilize the think filaments

Contractile proteins

myosin and actin -do the work of contracting the muscle

What are two contractile proteins?

Actin & Myosin

Regulatory proteins

Name two regulatory proteins

Troponin & Tropomyosin

Accessory Proteins

At least 7 other accessory proteins in or associated with think of thin filaments anchor the myofilaments regulate length of myofilaments alignment of myofilaments for optimal effectiveness Dystrophin- most clinically important links actin in outermost

Duchenne MD

Mainly a disease of males appears as child begins to walk rarely live past 20 years of age

Study of muscles

Myology

Functions of Muscles

Movement

Stability

Produce Heat

Functions of Muscles

Movement

Stability

Control of body openings and passages

Heat production

Glycemic control

Histology of Muscles

Voluntary

Striated

Multi-nucleated

Thread-like fibers

Thin sleeve of loose connective tissue that surrounds each muscle fiber

Endomysium

A thicker connective sheath that wraps muscle fibers together in bundles called fascicles

Perimysium

A fibrous sheath that surround the entire muscle

Epimysium

A sheet of connective tissue that separates neighboring muscles or muscle groups from each other and the subcutaneous tissue

Fascia

Connect muscle to bone allowing for contractions to move bone

Tendons

Attachment site at non-mobile end

Origin

Attachment site at mobile end

Insertion

Thicker portion of muscle between insertion and origin

Muscle Belly

Effect produced by muscle contraction

Action

Entirely contained within a particular region, having both its origin and insertion there

Intrinsic Muscle

Acts upon a designated region but has its origin elsewhere

Extrinsic Muscle

Thick in middle & tapered at ends

Fusiform

Fan shaped; broad at origin & tapering to a narrower insertion

Convergent

Have uniform width and parallel fascicles

Parallel

Act as sphincters

Circular

Feather shaped; fascicles insert obliquely on a tendon

Pennate

Also known as primary mover

Agonist

Opposite of agonist

Antagonist

Holds a joint in place

Fixator

Assists the agonist

Synergist

Increase in joint angle

Extension

Decrease in joint angle

Flexion

Elevation of toes

Dorsiflexion

Point toes down

Plantar Flexion

Removing from midline

Abduction

Adding to midline

Adduction

Circular motion with one end of an appendage stationary

Circumduction

Taking joint beyond full extension or "zero position"

Hyperextension

Move the soles of the foot medially, towards each other

Inversion

Move the soles laterally, away from each other

Eversion

Palms down, lying down

Pronation

Lateral and medial

Rotation

Trapezius

O- Spinous processes of T1-T2

I- Scapula

A- Retraction of scapula

Levator Scapulae

O- Transversus process of C1-4

I- Scapula

A- Elevation of scapula

Rhomboideus Minor

O- Spinous processes of vertebrae C7-T1

I- Medial border of scapula

A- Retracts and fixes scapula

Rhomboideus Major

O- Spinous process of T2-5

I- Scapula

A- Retraction of scapula

Serratus Anterior

O- Ribs 1-8

I- Scapula

A- Protraction of scapula

Pectoralis Minor

O- Ribs 3-5

I- Coracoid process of scapula

A- Stabilizes scapula

Latissimus Dorsi

O- Spinous process of T6-12

I- Humerus

A- Adduction of arm and extension of shoulder joint

Deltoid

O- Acromion and spine of scapula; clavicle

I- Deltoid tuberosity of humerus

A- Anterior fibers: flex shoulder joint, internally rotate humerus; lateral fibers: abduct arm; posterior fibers: extend and laterally rotate arm

Teres Major

O- Inferior angle of scapula

I- Intertubercular groove of humerus

A- Extends shoulder and medially rotates humerus

Supraspinatus

O- Supraspinous fossa of scapula

I- Greater tubercle of humerus

A- Aids deltoid in abduction of arm

Infraspinatus

O- Infraspinous fossa of scapula

I- Greater tubercle of humerus

A- Modulates action of deltoid; rotates humerus laterally

Teres Minor

O- Lateral border and posterior surface of scapula

I- Greater tubercle

A- Modulates action of deltoid; rotates humerus laterally

Subscapularis

O- Subscapular fossa of scapula

I- Lesser tubercle of humerus

A- Modulates action of deltoid; rotates humerus medially

Pectoralis Major

O- Clavicle, sternum, costal cartilage 1-7

I- Intertubercular groove of humerus

A- Flexes, adducts and medially rotates arm; aids in deep inspiration

Coracobrachialis

O- Coracoid process

I- Humerus

A- Flexes and medially rotates arm

Biceps Brachii

O- Long head: supra glenoid tubercle; short head: coracoid process

I- Radial tuberosity

A- Supination of forearm; elbow flexion

Triceps Brachii

O- Long head: infraglenoid tubercle of scapula; lateral head: humerus

I- Olecranon process of ulna

A- Extends elbow

Brachioradialis

0- Humerus

I- Radius, near styloid process

A- Flexes elbow

Anconeus

O- Lateral epicondyle of humerus

I- Lateral aspect of olecranon

A- Extends elbow

Pronator Quadratus

O- Anterior surface of distal ulna

I- Anterior surface of radius

A- Prime mover of forearm pronation

Pronator Teres

O- Humerus and ulna

I- Lateral surface of radius

A- Synergist of pronation

Supinator

O- Lateral epicondyle of humerus

I- Proximal one-third of radius

A- Supinates forearm

Flexor Carpi Radialis

O- Medial epicondyle of humerus

I- Base of metacarpals

A- Flexes wrist anteriorly; aids in flexion of wrist

Palmaris Longus

O- Medial epicondyle of humerus

I- Palmaris aponeurosis

A- Anchors skin and fascia of palmar region

Flexor Carpi Ulnaris

O- Medial epicondyle of humerus; medial margin of olecranon; posterior surface of ulna

I- Pisiform, hamate, metacarpal V

A- Flexes wrist anteriorly; aids in ulnar felxion of wrist

Flexor Digitorum Superficialis

O- Medial epicondyle of hummers; coronoid process; superior half of radius

I- Middle phalanges II-V

A- Flexes wrist

Flexor Pollicis Longus

O- Proximal end of ulna

I- Distal phalanges II-V

A- Flexes wrist

Flexor Pollicis Profundus

O- Radius

I- Distal Phalanx I

A- Flexes phalanges of thumb

Extensor Carpi Radialis Longus

O- Humerus laterally

I- Base of metacarpal II

A- Extends wrist

Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevis

O- Lateral epicondyle of humerus

I- Base of metacarpal III

A- Extends wrist

Extensor Digitorum

O- Lateral epicondyle of humerus

I- Dorsal surfaces of phalanges II-V

A- Extends wrist; tends to spread digits apart when extending metacarpophalangeal joint

Extensor Carpi Ulnaris

O- Lateral epicondyle of humerus

I- Base of metacarpal V

A- Extends and fixes wrist when fist clenched or hand grips object

Abductor Pollicis Longus

O- Radius and ulna posteriorly

I- Trapezium; metacarpal I

A- Abducts thumb

Extensor Pollicis Brevis

O- Radius

I- Proximal phalanx I

A- Extends metacarpal I and pollex

Extensor Pollicis Longus

O- Posterior surface of ulna

I- Phalanx I

A- Extends phalanx I

Iliacus

O- Iliac crest

I- Lesser trochanter of femur

A- Flexes thigh at hip; flexes trunk at hip; balances trunk when sitting

Psoas Major

O- T12-L5

I- Lesser trochanter

A- Flexes thigh at hip; flexes trunk at hip; balances trunk when sitting

Tensor Fasciae Latae

O- Iliac crest; anterior superior iliac spine

I- Lateral condyle of tibia via ilotibial band

A- Extends knee; laterally rotates tibia; aids in abduction and rotation of femur

Gluteus Maximus

O- Iliac crest, sacrum coccyx

I- Iliotibial; gluteal tuberosity of femur

A- Extends thigh and hip as in stair climbing and walking; abducts thigh

Gluteus Medius

O- Ilium

I- Greater trochanter of femur

A- Abducts and medially rotates thigh

Gluteus Minimus

O- Ilium

I- Greater trochanter of femur

A- Abduct and medially rotate thigh

Adductor Brevis

O- Body of inferior rams of pubis

I- Linea aspera of femur

Ac- Adducts thigh

Adductor Longus

O- Body and inferior ramus of pubis

I- Linea aspera of femur

A- Adducts and medially rotates thigh; flexes thigh at hip

Adductor Magnus

O- Inferior ramus of pubis; ischium

I- Linea aspera of femur

A- adducts and medially rotates thigh; extends thigh at hip

Gracilis

O- Ramus of pubis; ramus of ischium

I- Medial surface of tibia

A- Flexes and medially rotates tibia at knee

Pectineus

O- Superior ramus of pubis

I- Femur

A- Flexes and adducts the thigh

Sartorius

O- Anterior superior iliac spine

I- Tibia

A- Flexion at knee and hip, abducts/laterally rotates thigh

Extensor Digitorum Longus

O- Tibia & fibula

I- Phalanges II-V

A- Extends toes 2-5

Tibialis Anterior

O- Tibia

I- 1st metatarsal & cuneiform

A- Dorsiflexes and inverts foot

Extensor Hallucis Longus

O- Fibula

I- Hallux

A- Extends big toe

Gastrocnemius

O- Femur

I- Calcaneus

A- Plantar flexes foot, flexes knee

Soleus

O- Fibula and tibia

I- Calcaneus

A- Extension at ankle

image fibularis_longus-144DCD5D82371D4ECBA-thumb for term side of card

Fibularis (Peroneus) Longus

O- Fibula & tibia

I- 1st metatarsal, cuneiform

A- Maintains plantar flexion and everts foot

image fibularis_brevis-144DCD71B917F12A597-thumb for term side of card

Fibularis (Peroneus) Brevis

O- Fibula

I- 5th metatarsal

A- Plantar flexes and everts foot

Temporalis

O- Temporal Bone

I- Mandible

A- Elevation of Mandible

Masseter

O- Zygomatic arch

I- Mandible

A- Elevation of Mandible

Orbicularis Oculi

O- Frontal Bone

I- Lateral side of orbit

A- Close eyelids

Orbicularis Oris

O- Skin around mouth

I- Lips

A- Closes lips

Levator Palpebrae Superioris

O- Sphenoid bone

I- Upper eyelid

A- Elevation of upper eyelid

Platysma

O- Fascia of upper thorax and lower neck

I- Mandible

A- Elevates and creases skin of neck

Sternocleidomastoid

O- Sternum, clavicle

I- Mastoid process of temporal bone

A- Rotation of neck

Scalenes

O- Transverse processes of C3-7

I- Ribs 1 and 2

A- Lateral flexion of neck, fixation of ribs 1 and 2 during respiration

Digastric

O- A: Mandible P: Temporal Bone

I- Hyoid bone

A- Depresses mandible, elevates hyoid bone

Stylohyoid

O- Styloid process of temporal bone

I- Hyoid bone

A- Elevation of hyoid bone

image myohyoid-144F264B2656955B69B-thumb for term side of card

Mylohyoid

O- Mandible

I- Hyoid bone

A- Elevation of floor of mouth

Sternohyoid

O- Sternum

I- Hyoid bone

A- Depression of hyoid bone

Sternothyroid

O- Sternum

I- Thyroid cartilage of larynx

A- Depression of larynx

Omohyoid

O- Scapula

I- Hyoid bone

A- Depression of hyoid bone

Thyrohyoid

O- Thyroid cartilage of larynx

I- Hyoid bone

A- Depression of hyoid bone

External Intercostals

O- Inferior margin of ribs 1-11

I- Superior margin of ribs 2-12

A- Elevation of ribs during respiration

Diaphragm

O- Ribs 5-10 and their costal cartilages

I- Central tendon of diaphragm

A- Prime mover of inspiration

Rectus Abdominus

O- Pubis

I- Xiphoid process of sternum

A- Flexion of trunk

External Obliques

O- Ribs 5-12 and their costal cartilage

I- Ilium

A- Rotation of trunk

Internal Obliques

O- Iliac crest

I- Ribs 10-12

A- Rotation of trunk

Transversus Abdominus

O- Ilium

I- Xiphoid process of sternum

A- Compression of abdominal contents

Linea Alba

Iliocostalis

O- Ribs

I- Ribs

A- Lateral flexion of vertebral column

Longissimus

O- Sacral and lumbar spinous processes

I- Mastoid process

A- Lateral flexion of vertebral column

Spinalis

O- Spinous processes

I- Occipital bone

A- Lateral flexion of vertebral column

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Olfactory Nerve I (sensory)

Sense of smell

Damage causes impaired sense of smell

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Optic Nerve II (Sensory)

Provides vision

Damage causes blindness in visual field

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Oculomotor Nerve III (Motor)

Eye movement, opening of eyelid, constriction of pupil, focusing

Damage causes drooping eyelid, dilated pupil, double vision, difficulty focusing and inability to move eye in certain directions

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Trochlear Nerve IV (Motor)

Eye movement (superior oblique muscle)

Damage causes double vision and inability to rotate eye inferolaterally

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Trigeminal Nerver V (Both)

Sensory to face (touch, pain and temperature) and muscles of mastication

Damage produces loss of sensation and impaired chewing

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Abducens Nerve VI (Motor)

Provides eye movement (lateral rectus m.)

Damage results in inability to rotate eye laterally and at rest eye rotates medially

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Facial VII (Both)

Motor- facial expressions; salivary glands and tear, nasal and palatine glands

Sensory- Taste on anterior 2/3's of tongue

Damage produces sagging facial muscles and disturbed sense of taste (no sweet and salty)

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Vestibulocochlear Nerve VII (Sensory)

Cochlear- Hearing

Vestibular- Proprioception, understanding where the head is in relation to gravity muscles, eye movements

Provides hearing and sense of balance

Damage produces deafness, dizziness, nausea, loss of balance and nystagmus

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Glossopharyngeal Nerve IX (Both)

Swallowing, salivation, gagging, control of BP and respiration

Sensations from posterior 1/3 of tongue

Damage results in loss of bitter and sour taste and impaired swallowing

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Vagus Nerve X (Both)

Swallowing, speech, regulation of viscera

Damage causes hoarseness or loss of voice, impaired swallowing and fatal if both are cut

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Accessory Nerve XI (Motor)

Swallowing, head, neck and shoulder movement

Damage causes impaired head, neck, shoulder movement; head turns towards injured side

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Hypoglossal Nerver XII (Motor)

Tongue movements for speech, food manipulation and swallowing

If both are damaged, can't protrude tongue

If one side is damaged, tongue deviates towards injured side; see ipsilateral atrophy

Corpus Callosum

Thalamus

Hypothalamus

Pituitary Gland

Mammillary Body

Pineal Gland

Pons

Third Ventricle

Fourth Ventricle

Pinna

Cochlea

Semicircular Ducts

Tympanic Membrane

Utricle of Ear

Vestibulocochlear

Iris

Lens

Optic Nerve

Pupil

Sclera

Choroid

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Ciliary Body

Cornea

Optic Disc

Retina

Rectus Femoris

O- Anterior inferior iliac spine, superior part of acetabulum

I- Patella, tibia

A- Extension at knee, flexion at hip

Vastus Lateralis

O- Femur

I- Tibia, patella

A- Knee extension

Vastus Intermedius

O- Femur

I- Tibial tuberosity and patella

A- Knee extension

Vastus Medialis

O- Femur

I- Tibia, patella

A- Knee extension

Multiple Motor Unit

The process of bringing more motor units into play

Temporal Summation

Results from two stimuli arriving close together

Isometric Muscle Contraction

Muscle is producing internal tension while an external resistance causes it to stay the same length or become longer Can be a prelude to movement when tension is absorbed by elastic component of muscle Important in postural muscle function and antagonistic muscle joint stabilization

Concentric Contraction

Eccentric Contraction

ATP supply depends on availability of what?

Oxygen Organic energy sources

Anaerobic Fermentation

Enables cells to produce ATP in the absence of oxygen Yields little ATP Produces lactic acid- a major factor in muscle fatigue

Aerobic Respiration

Produces far more ATP Less toxic end products (CO2 and Water) Requires a continual supply of oxygen

Aerobic Respiration

Theoretically produces 36-38 ATP per glucose Efficient means of meeting the ATP demands of prolonged exervise One's rate of oxygen consumption rises for 3 to 4 minutes and levels off to a steady state in which aerobic ATP production keeps pace with demand Little lactic acid accumulates under steady state conditions

Myoglobin

Supplies oxygen for a limited amount of aerobic respiration at onset

Myokinase

Transfers P, form one ADP to another converting the latter to ATP

Creatine Kinase

Obtains P, from a phosphate-storage molecule creatine phosphate (CP)

Phosphagen System

ATP and CP collectively Provides nearly all energy used for short bursts of intense activity

Glycolsis

Generate a net gain of 2 ATP for every glucose molecule consumed

Glycogen-lactic acid system

The pathway from glycogen to lactic acid

Muscle Fatigue

Progressive weakness and loss of contractility from prolonged use of the muscles - Repeated squeezing of rubber ball - Holding text book out level to the floor

Causes of muscle fatigue

ATP synthesis declines as glycogen is consumed ATP shortage slows down the Na+ K+ pumps Lactic acid lowers pH of sarcoplasm Release of K+ with each action potential causes the accumulation of extracellular K+ Motor nerve fibers use up ACh Central nervous system fatigues by unknown processes

Endurance

The ability to maintain high-intensity exercise for more than 4 to 5 minutes Determined in large part by one's maximum oxygen uptake

Maximum oxygen uptake

The point at which the rate of oxygen consumption reaches a plateau and does not increase further with an added workload - Proportional to body size - Peaks at around age 20 - Usually greater in males than females - Can be twice as great in trained endurance athletes as in untrained person

Excess Post-Exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC)

The difference between the resting rate of oxygen consumption and the elevated rate following exercise Typically about 11 liters extra is needed after strenuous exercise Repaying the oxygen debt

Oral Creatine Supplement

Increases level of creatine phosphate in muscle tissue and increases speed of ATP regeneration - Useful in burst type exercises- weight lifting - Risks are not well known - Muscle cramping, electrolyte imbalances, dehydration, water retention, gastrointestinal issues, weight gain, seizures, stroke

Carbohydrate Loading

Dietary regimen -Packs extra glycogen into muscle cells

Slow Oxidative, Slow-twitch, red, or type I fibers

"Dark meat" Abundant mitochondria, myoglobin and capillaries- deep red color Adapted for aerobic respiration and fatigue resistance - Relative long twitch lasting about 100 msec - Soleus of calf and postural muscles of the back

Fast Glycolytic, Fast-twitch, white, or type II fibers

"White Meat" Fibers are well adapted for quick responses but not for fatigue resistance Rich in enzymes of phosphagen and glycogen-lactic acid systems Less mitochondria, myoglobin, and blood capillaries which gives paler appearance

Muscular strength depends on

Primarily on muscle size Fascicle arrangement - Pennate are stronger than parallel, and parallel stronger than circular Size of motor units - Larger the motor unit the stronger the contraction Multiple motor unit summation- recruitment Temporal summation length-tension relationship Fatigue

Resistance training

Contraction of a muscles against a load that resist movement A few minutes of resistance exercise a few times a week is enough to stimulate muscle growth Growth is from cellular enlargement

Endurance Training

Improves fatigue resistant muscles Slow twitch fibers produce more mitochondria, glycogen and acquire a greater density of blood capillaries Improves skeletal strength Increases the red blood cell count and oxygen transport capacity of the blood

Cardiac Muscle

Limited to the heart where it functions to pump blood Required properties of cardiac muscle - contraction with regular rythm - muscle cells of each chamber must contract in unison - contractions must last long enough to expel blood - must work in sleep or wakefulness, with out fail, and without conscious attention - must be highly resistant to fatigue

Cardiac Muscle

Can contract without need for nervous stimulation - contains a built in pacemaker that rhythmically sets off a wave of electrical excitation - wave travels through the muscle and triggers contraction of heart chambers - autorhythmic- because of its ability to contract rhythmically and independently Autonomic nervous system(ANS) does send nerve fibers to the heart - can increase or decrease heart rate and contraction strength

Cardiac Muscles

Striated, Uninucleated, Branching

Cardiac Muscle

Is limited to the heart. It is striated but it differs from skeletal muscle in its other features. It is considered involuntary, it contracts even if all nerve connections to it are severed

Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells

Striated Myocytes are shorter and thicker Each myocyte is joined to several others at the uneven, notched linkages- intercalated discs - appear as thick dark lines in stained tissue sections - electrical gap junctions allow each myocyte to directly stimulate its neighbors - mechanical junctions that keep the myocytes from pulling apart Sarcoplasmic reticulum less developed, but T tubules are larger and admit supplemental Ca2+ from the extracellular fluid

Smooth Muscle

Composed of myocytes that have a fusiform shape One nucleus located near the middle of the cell No visible striations Z discs are absent and replaced by dense bodies Cytoplasm has extensive cytoskeleton of intermediate filaments Sarcoplasmic reticulum is scanty and there are no T tubules Ca2+ needed for muscle contraction comes from the ECF by way of Ca2+ channels in the sarcolemma Some smooth muscles lack nerve supply, while others receive automatic fibers, not somatic motor fibers as in skeletal muscle Capable of mitosis and hyperplasia

Smooth Muscle

Lacks striations and is involuntary. Called myocytes are fusiform and relatively short. They have only one, centrally placed nucleus. Small amounts are found in the iris of the eye and in the skin but most of it forms layers in the walls of the digestive, respiratory and urinary tracts.

Muiltiunit smooth muscle

Occurs in some of the largest arteries and pulmonary air passages, in Piloerector muscles of hair follicle, and in the iris of the eye Autonomic innervation similar to skeletal muscle

Single-unit smooth muscle

More widespread Occurs in most blood vessels in the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts Also called visceral muscle Myocytes of this cell type are electrically coupled to each other by gap junctions They directly stimulate each other and a large number of cells contract as a single unit

Stimulation of Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle is involuntary and can contract without nervous stimulation - Can contract in response to chemical stimuli Hormones, carbon dioxide, low pH, and oxygen deficiency In response to stretch Single unit smooth muscle in stomach and intestines has pacemaker cells that set off waves of contraction throughout the entire layer of msucel Most smooth muscle is innervated by autonomic nerve fibers - Can trigger and modify contractions - Stimulate smooth muscle with either acetylcholine or norepinephrine - Can

Contraction and Relaxation of Smooth

Functions of Skeletal Muscle

Production of Heat

Movement

Joint Stability

The loose connective tissue that surrounds each individual muscle cell is called the

Endomysium

The connective tissue layer that surrounds individual fascicles within skeletal muscle

Perimysium

Muscle fibers are arranged in bundles within a muscle. These bundles, wrapped in connective tissue, are called

Fascicles

A connective tissue layer that surrounds an entire muscle and projects down into the muscle to form the perimysium is called

Epimysium

Connective tissue sheet separating neighboring muscles or muscle groups

Fascia

A muscle that is thick in the middle and tapered at each end is called

Fusiform Muscle

A muscle that is broad at one end and narrower at the other is called

Convergent Muscle

A muscle with its fasciculi arranged like barbs of a feather is called

Pennate Muscle

Fascicles insert on the tendon from both sides

Bipennate

Many bipennate muscle units merging into one tendon

Multipennate

All fascicles approach tendon from one side of the muscle

Unipennate

Circular muscles that form rings around body openings

Sphincters

Fascia separates muscles into functional groups called

Compartments

A muscle anchored to the bone via a tendon is called

Indirect Attachment

Connective tissue structure that attach bone to muscle is called

Tendons

The site of muscle attachment that remains stationary with contraction

Origin

The muscle attachment that is moved with contraction

Insertion

The thicker middle region of a muscle is called

Belly

A muscle that produces most of the force during particular joint action is called

Agonist

Assists the prime mover that is causing the action

Synergist

A muscle that prevents a bone from moving is called

Fixator

A muscle with both the origin and insertion in the same body region

Intrinsic Muscle

Site of action is in a region different from their site of origin

Extrinsic Muscle

A muscle that opposes the action at a join is called

Antagonist

A muscle of uniform width with fascicles aligned along its longitudinal axis would be called

Parallel Muscles

A bundle of muscle fibers surrounded by connective tissue

Fascicles

A characteristic of all cells, but one that muscles and nerves have developed to the highest degree is

Excitability

The characteristic that allows muscles to pull on bones and organs to create movement is

Contractility

Resting muscles are prevented from becoming slack by the property of

Elasticity

Skeletal muscles exhibits alternating light and dark bands called

Striations

The type of contraction that maintains joint stability and posture is called

Isometric Contraction

Aerobic metabolism utilizes what as fuel to generate ATP

Glucose & Fatty Acids

Cardiac and smooth muscle are what type of muscle?

Involuntary Muscle

A difference in electrical charge from one point to another is measured in millivolts (mV) and is called

Electrical Potential

The progressive weakness and loss of contractility that results from prolonged use of the muscle is known as

Fatigue

What muscle cells have a fusiform shape and taper to a point at the ends?

Smooth Muscle Cells

Muscle contraction occurs because

Myofilaments increase the amount that they overlap

The partial contraction of resting muscles

Muscle Tone

Characteristics of Smooth Muscle

Smooth muscle has little SR

Smooth muscle is uninucleated

Smooth muscle has no T-Tubules

Within skeletal muscles, what extends from one Z disc to the next and constitutes one contractile unit

Sarcomere

All of the muscle fibers innervated by a single motor nerve fiber

Motor Unit

When the target cell is a muscle fiber, this type of synapse is

Neuromuscular junction

The neurotransmitter used at the neuromuscular junction is

Acetylcholine

What are the parameters that affect twitch strength?

Temperature of the muscle

How stretched the muscle was just before it was stimulated

Calcium concentration

Stimulation frequency

The process by which action potentials of a nerve fiber lead to action potentials in the muscle fiber is called

Excitation

It breaks down ACh, ending muscle stimulation

Acetylcholinesterase

The autonomic nervous system is important in the control of what

Smooth and cardiac muscles

Functions of smooth muscle

Move material through the digestive tract

Regulate pupil diameter

Constrict or dilate blood vessels to control blood pressure

A red pigment that stores oxygen needed for muscular activity

Myoglobin

Some myoblasts remain as what located between the muscle fiber and the endomysium

Satellite

The action of muscles that are not under conscious control are

Involuntary

Muscle fibers are bundled together into fascicles with connective tissue that compromises the

Perimysium

When a muscle lengthens, the collagenous components protect the muscle because they resist what?

Stretching

When a muscle is injured this cell can multiply and produce new fibers

Satellite Cells

Infoldings of the sarcolemma, called transverse tubules, are associated with two terminal cistern, forming a unit called

Triad

The sarcoplasmic reticulum serves as a reservoir for

Calcium Ions

Wind their way through the sarcoplasm, stimulating the terminal cisternae to release calcium

T-tubules

The muscle protein composed of two protein chains intertwined together, forming a head and a tail is

Myosin

Characteristicsof cardiac muscle

Has large stores of glycogen

It is rich in myoglobin

It uses aerobic respiration almost exclusively

The sliding filament theory describes how what occurs?

Muscle Contraction

Muscle fatigue results from increased levels of

Lactic Acid

A synapse is the point where a nerve fiber meets a target cell. When the target cell is a muscle fiber, this type of synapse is

Neuromusclar Junction

A difference in electrical charge from one point to another is measured in millivolts and is called

Electrical Potential

All of the muscle fibers innervated by a single nerve fiber constitute a

Motor Unit

The portion of the myofibril from one Z-disc to the next is called

Sarcomere

Events during the relaxation phase

Muscle tension declines

Calcium levels in the sarcoplasm fall

Myosin releases thin filaments

These muscle cells are uninucleated, non-striated and fusiform shaped

Smooth Muscle Cells

The neurotransmitter secreted at the neuromuscular junction

Acetylcholine

Energy needed for short bursts of intense activity are provided by

Creatine Phosphate & ATP

The voltage measured across the muscle cell at rest is about -90mV and is called

Resting Membrane Potential

Continuous forceful contraction in a muscle with no relaxation between stimuli

Complete Tetanus

Thickened notched ends of cardiac muscle cells which contain gap junctions

Intercalated discs

The cocked myosin head binds to an exposed active site on what to form a cross-bridge?

Actin

The hydrolysis of ATP and preparation for reattachment to the thin filament by the myosin head is called

Recovery Stroke

Resistance exercise causes muscle growth by stimulating

Increase in myofibril size

Smooth muscle sarcolemma has pockets called what that increase the cell surface and the number of calcium channels

Caveolae

Tonic contraction of what muscle plays an important role in maintaining blood pressure and in keeping the intestine partially contracted

Smooth Muscle

During excitation-contration coupling, calcium is released into the sarcoplasm and binds to

Troponin

Within a sarcomere, the region within the A band that lacks thin filaments is called the

H band

A record of the timing and strength of the muscle's contraction is called a

Myogram

The synaptic knob does not touch the muscle fiber but is separated by a space called the

Synaptic Cleft

The minimum voltage necessary to generate an action potential is called the

Threshold

Central Nervous System

Contains brain & spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

All Nerves

Afferent

Sensory

Efferent

Motor

How many pairs of spinal nerves?

31

Sulci/Sulcus

Valleys

Gyri/Gyrus

Bumps

Divides frontal and parietal lobes of the brain

Central Sulcus

Divides frontal, parietal and temporal lobes

Lateral Sulcus

Divides the two cerebral hemispheres (right and left)

Longitudinal fissure

Divides the cerebellum from the rest of the brain

Transverse Fissure

Connective tissue membrane that protects the brain

Meninges

Outermost layer of meninges, tough

Dura Mater

Spiderweb looking layer of meninges found deep to the dura mater

Arachnoid Mater

Tine vascular layer of meninges (deepest)

Pia Mater

What does the forebrain contain?

Cerebral cortex, cerebrum, corpus collasum, deincephalon

What does the hindbrain contain?

Pons, medulla oblongata, cerebellum

Major divisions of the brain

Brainstem

Cerebrum

Cerebellum

Diencephalon

Automatic, basic functions of life

The brainstem

Midbrain contains

Corpora quadrigemina & cerebral aqueduct

Synchronizes muscular actions

Cerebellum

Contains speech, critical abstract thinking, and personality

Cerebral Cortex

Oscillating mechanical waves that pass through some medium (liquid, air)

Sound

Visible portion of ear; composed of elastic/fibro cartilage & skin

Pinna

Ear Drum

Tympanic Membrane

Small air filled cavity (the space of the middle ear excluding eastachain tube)

Tympanic Cavity

Transfers vibration of ear drum to motion of stapes

Ossicles (bones)

Attached to ear drum and incus

Malleus

Attached to malleus and stapes

Incus

Attached to incus and oval window

Stapes

Acts as a piston pounding on the oval window creating vibrations in liquid of inner ear

Superior opening of middle ear

Oval Window

Transfers sound to inner ear

Inferior opening of middle ear

Round Window

Pressure releaser for inner ear

Acts like a valve (open & closing)

Auditory Tube

Closed under normal circumstances. Opens to equalize pressure between middle ear and atmosphere

Rigid outer layer of inner ear

Bony Labyrinth

Fleshy tubes lining bony tunnels

Membranous Labyrinth

Fluid separating bony labyrinth from membranous labyrinth

Perilymph

Fluid inside membranous labyrinth

Endolymph

Central cavity of bony labyrinth

Vestibule

Part of the membranous labyrinth, leads to conchlea

Saccule

Part of the membranous labyrinth, leads to the semilunar canals

Utricle

Has anterior/posterior/lateral canals, each canal contains endolymph and have receptors to detect rotation of the head at different angles

Semilunar Canals

Contain macula hair cells with stereocilia buried in a gelatinous otolithic membrane used for balance.

Saccule & Utricle

Equilibrium receptors in the saccule and utricle that respond to the pull of gravity and report on changes of head position

Maculae

Perceptions of head orientation by perception of the otolithic membrane bending

Static Equilibrium

Perceptions of motion or acceleration due to otoliths lagging behind

Dynamic Equilibrium

Fluid-filled canals that detect vibrations

Cochlea

Contains hair/nerve cells that convert vibrations into the sound we hear

Spiral organ of corti

Endolymph separated from scala vestibular by vestibular membrane

Scala Media

Gelatinous substance rest on top of stereocilia non-mobile

Tectorial Membrane

Separates cochlear duct from scala tympani

Basilar Membran

Transparant mucous membrane lining inside of eyelids & covers the sclera

Conjuctiva

12 ducts lead to the surface of conjunctiva

Lacrimal Gland

Holes in medial eye that catches tears

Lacrimal Punctum

Tubes that lead from lacrimal punctum to lacrimal sac

Lacrimal Canals

Collects tears and carries them to nasolacrimal duct

Lacrimal Sac

Coming from the lacrimal sac, it drains tears into nasal cavity

Nasolacrimal Duct

Elevates eye and turns it laterally

Inferior Oblique

Depresses eye and turns it laterally

Superior Oblique

White of the eye

Sclera

Transparent part of the eye covers iris, pupil, anterior chamber, lets light in

Cornea

Vascular Layer

Choroid

Produces aqueous humor

Ciliary Body

Visible colored part of eye, controls diameter/size pupil

Iris

Opening that allows light to enter

Pupil

Collect light

Pigmented Layer of Retina

Collects action potentials generated from activated photrecepts

Neural Layer

Dim light (black & white), contrast

Rods

Bright light, color

Cones

Only cones ~ area of sharpest color vision

Fovea Centralis

Nerve associated with sight

Optic nerve

Sagital Plane

Divides body into right and left halves

Frontal (Coronal) Plane

Divides body into front & back portions

Transverse (Horizontal) Plane

Divides the body into upper & lower portions

Axial Region

Head, neck, & trunk

Thoracic region

Above diaphragm

Abdominal Region

Below diaphragm

Appendicular Region

Upper and Lower Limbs

Brachium or Brachial Region

Arm

Antebrachium or Antebrachial Region

Forearm

Carpus or Carpal Region

Wrist

Manus or Manual Region

Hand

Digits

Fingers & Toes

Femoral

Thigh

Crus

Leg

Tarsus

Ankle

Pes

Foot

Organ

A structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function

Organism

Single, complete individual

Cells

Are the smallest units of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life

Organelles

Microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions. Ex. Mitochondria, centrioles, and lysosomes

Molecules

Particle composed of at least two atoms

Atoms

The smallest particles with unique chemical identities

Organ system

A group of organs with a unique collective function, such as circulation, respiration, or digestion

What are the four groups of macromolecules and their building blocks?

Carbohydrates- Monosaccharides

Protein- Amino Acids

Nucleic Acid- Nucleotide

Lipid- Glycerol, Fatty acids

What is the storage form of carbs in the body?

Glucose

Components of a membrane

98% of the molecules in the membrane are lipids, and about 75% of the lipids are phospholipids.

2% of the molecules of the plasma membrane are proteins. Integral proteins and transmembrane proteins

Integral Proteins

Penetrate into the phospholipid bilayer or all the way through it.

Transmembrane Proteins

Pass completely through the phospholipid bilayer. Have hydrophilic regions in contact with the water on both sides of the membrane and hydrophobic regions that pass back and forth through the lipid of the membrane.

Receptors

Many of the chemical signals by which cells communicate cannot enter the target cell but bind to surface proteins called receptors

Second-messenger systems

When a messenger binds to a surface receptor, it may trigger changes within the cell that produce a second messenger in the cytoplasm

Enzymes

Enzymes in the plasma membrane carry out the final stages of starch and protein digestion in the small intestine, help produce second messengers, and break down hormones and other signaling molecules

Channel Proteins

Channels are passages that allow water and hydrophilic solutes to move through the membrane

Carriers

Carriers are transmembrane proteins that bind to glucose, electrolytes, and other solutes and transfer them to the other side of the membrane

Cell-Identity Markers

Glycoproteins contribute to the glycocalyx

Cell-Adhesion Molecules

Cells adhere to one another and to extracellular material through membrane proteins called cell-adhesion molecules

Microvilli

Extensions of the plasma membrane that serve primarily to increase a cell's surface area

Cilia

Hairlike processes about 7 to 10 nanometers long.

Muscular Tissue

Specialized to contract when stimulated and thus to exert a physical force on other tissues, organs or fluids. For example a skeletal muscle pulls on a bone, the heart contracts and expels blood and the bladder contracts and expels urine.

Hypertrophy

The enlargement of preexisting cells.

Atrophy

Is the shrinkage of a tissue through a loss in cell size or number.

Necrosis

Is premature, pathological tissue death due to trauma, toxins, infection and so forth

Regeneration

Is the replacement of dead or damaged cells by the same type of cells as before. Regeneration restores normal function to the organ

Fibrosis

Is the replacement of damaged tissue with scar tissue, composed mainly of collagen produced by fibroblasts.

Scar Tissue

Helps to hold an organ together, but it does not restore normal function

Epidermis

A keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Its surface consists of dead cells packed with the tough protein keratin

Layers of the Epidermis

Stratum Basale

Stratum Spinosum

Stratum Granulosum

Stratum Lucidum

Stratum Corneum

Dermis

Beneath the epidermis is the dermis. It ranges from 0.2 mm thick in the eyelids to about 4 mm thick in the palms and soles.

What is the Dermis composed of?

Collagen but also contains elastic and reticular fibers, fibroblasts, and the other cells typical of fibrous connective tissue

Cells of the Epidermis

Stem Cells

Keratinocytes

Melanocytes

Tactile (Merkel) Cells

Dendritic (Langerhans) Cells

Hypodermis

Beneath the skin is a layer called the hypodermis or the subcutaneous tissue. Generally has more areolar and adipose tissue. It pads the body and binds the skin to the underlying tissues.

Cyanosis

Blueness of the skin resulting from a deficiency of oxygen in the circulating blood

Jaundice

A yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes resulting from high levels of bilirubin in the blood

Freckles

Flat melanized patches that vary with heredity and exposure to the sun

Mole

An elevated patch of melanized skin, often with hair

Functions of the skeleton

Support

Protection

Movement

Electrolyte balance

Acid-base balance

Blood formation

Short bones

Wrists and ankles. Are approximately equal in length and width and which produce relatively limited gliding movements

Irregular Bones

Do not fit any category. Vertebrae and the sphenoid and ethmoid bones of the skill

Flat Bones

Thin curved plates

Long Bones

Serve as rigid levers that are acted upon by skeletal muscles to produce the major body movements

Epiphyseal Plate

Made of hyaline cartilage that separates the marrow spaces of the epiphysis and diaphysis

Red Bone Marrow

Often described as hemopoietic tissue. Tissue that produces blood cells

Yellow Bone Marrow

No longer produce blood although in the event of severe or chronic anemia, it can transform back into red marrow

Hypocalcemia

A calcium deficiency

Hypercalcemia

Blood calcium excess

Stress Fracture

Break caused by abnormal trauma to a bone, such as fractures incurred in falls, athletics and military combat

Pathological Fracture

Break in a bone weakened by some other disease, such as bone cancer or osteoporosis

Calcitriol

Increases calcium absorption

It increases calcium resorption from the skeleton

Calcitonin

Secreted when the blood calcium concentration rises too high and it lowers the concentration by two principal mechanisms

Parathyroid Hormone

Secreted by the parathyroid glands, which adhere to the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. These glands release PTH when blood calcium is low. A mere 1% drop in the blood calcium level doubles the secretion of PTH

Insertion

The attachment site at its more mobile end

Neurons

Excitability

Conductivity

Secretion

Structure of a Neuron

The control center of the neuron is the soma, also called the neurosoma, cell body or perikaryon. It has a single, centrally located nucleus with a large nucleolus. The cytoplasm contains mitochondria, lysosomes, a golgi complex, numerous inclusions and an extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum and cytoskeleton

Glial Cells

Protect the neurons and help them function

Functions of the Spinal Cord

Conduction

Neural integration

Locomotion

Reflexes

Regions of the Spinal Cord

Cervical

Thoracic

Lumbar

Sacral Region

How many spinal nerves are there?

31

8 Cervical

12 Thoracic

5 Lumbar

5 Sacral

1 Coccygeal

Ganglion

A cluster of neurosomas outside the CNS

Medulla Oblongata

Has a cardiac center, which regulates the rate and force of the heartbeat; a vasomotor center, which regulates blood pressure and flow by dilating and constricting blood vessels; two respiratory centers, which regulate the rhythm and depth of breathing; and other nuclei involved in the aforementioned motor functions

The Pons

Cranial nerves V to VIII begin or end in the pons. Include sensory roles in hearing, equilibrium, and taste, and in facial sensations such as touch and pain; as well as motor roles in eye movement, facial expressions, chewing, swallowing, urination, and the secretion of saliva and tears

Cerebellum

Center for monitoring muscle contractions and aiding in motor coordination.

Hypothalamus

Major control center of the endocrine and autonomic nervous systems. It plays an essential role in the homeostatic regulation of nearly all organs of the body. Hormone secretion, Autonomic effects, Thermoregulation, Food and water intake, Sleep and circadian rhythms, Memory, Emotional behavior and sexual response

Frontal Lobe

Concerned with voluntary motor functions, motivation, foresight, planning, memory, mood, emotion, social judgement, and aggression

Parietal Lobe

Primary site for receiving and interpreting signals of the general senses for taste and for some visual processing

Occipital Lobe

Principal visual center of the brain

Temporal Lobe

Concerned with hearing, smell, learning, memory, and some aspects of vision and emotion

Insula

Plays roles in understanding spoken language, in the sense of taste, and in the integrating sensory information from visceral receptors

Olfactory Nerve

Nerve for the sense of smell

Optic Nerve

Nerve for vision

Oculomotor Nerve

Nerve controls muscles that turn the eyeball up, down and medially as well as controlling the iris, lens, and upper eyelid

Trochlear

This nerve controls a muscle that rotates the eyeball medially and slightly depresses the eyeball when the head turns

Trigeminal Nerve

Touch, temperature, and pain sensations from upper face, Mastication

Abducens Nerve

Controls a muscle that turns the eyeball laterally

Facial Nerve

Taste, facial expression, secretion of tears, saliva, nasal and oral mucus

Vestibulocochlear

Hearing and equilibrium

Vagus Nerve

Taste, sensations of hunger, fullness, and gastrointestinal discomfort, swallowing, speech, deceleration of heart, bronchoconstriction, gastrointestinal secretion and motility

Accessory Nerve

Swallowing, head, neck and shoulder movements

Hypoglossal

Tongue movements of speech, food manipulation and swallowing

Cerebral Palsy

Muscular incoordination resulting from damage to the motor areas of the brain during fetal development, birth, or infancy

Concusion

Damage to the brain typically resulting from a blow, often with loss of consciousness, disturbances of vision or equilibrium and short term amnesia

Encephalitis

Inflammation of the brain, accompanied by fever, usually caused by mosquito-borne viruses or herpes simplex virus

Epilepsy

Disorder causing sudden, massive discharge of neurons resulting in motor convulsions, sensory and psychic disturbances, and often impaired consciousness

Spinal Nerve Route

Some postganglionic fibers exit a ganglion by way of the gray ramus, return to the spinal nerve or its subdivisions, and travel the rest of the way to the target organ.

Sympathetic Nerve Route

Postganglionic fibers leave by way of sympathetic nerves that extend to the heart, lungs, esophagus, and thoracic blood vessels.

Splanchnic Nerve Route

Some of the fibers that arise from spinal nerves T5 to T12 pass through the sympathetic ganglia without synapsing. Beyond the ganglia, they continue as splanchnic nerves, which lead to a second set of ganglia called collateral ganglia

Rostral

toward the nose

caudal

toward the tail

cortex

surface layer of gray matter

Nuclei

deeper masses of gray matter

tracts

bundles of axons (white matter)

Major portions of the brain

brainstem
cerebrum- 83% of brain volume
cerebellum - contains 50% of the neurons

Brainstem

What remains of the brain if the cerebrum and cerebellum are removed.

Major components of Brainstem

Diencephalon
Midbrain
Pons
Medulla oblongata

Brain Landmarks

Longitudinal Fissure - separates 2 cerebral hemispheres
Central Sulcus - separates frontal and parietal lobe

gyri

thick folds

sulci

shallow grooves

image medulla_oblongata_21318396555168-thumb for term side of card

locate:

central sulcus
gyri
lateral sulcus
temporal lobe
brainstem
cerebrum
cerebellum

Corpus Callosum

thick nerve bundle at bottom of the longitudinal fissure that connects hemispheres

considered part of the cerebrum

Gray Matter

Neuron cell bodies, dendrites & synapses
forms cortex over cerebrum & cerebellum
forms nuclei deep within brain